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LIBRARY    OF    TI1K 

University  of  California 

C/A'  C  UL  ,1  r/XG     BRANCH. 


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PRESERVATION 
COPY  ADDED 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


ACCENT — Acute,  Syllabic,         ....  8,  9 

ADJECTIVES — Inflection,  Derivation,  Comparison,  21 

— Agreement,  Position,  Complement  of,       75 


ADVERBS — History,  Classification,  Use,     . 
ALPHABET — Latin  Equivalents,  Capital  Letters, 
ARTICLES — Inflection,  History,  Use, 
AUGMENTATIVE  NOUNS,        ..... 

AUXILIARY  VERBS,      ...... 

CAPITAL  LETTERS,      ...... 

CASE,        .  

COMPARISON,      ....... 

CONJUGATION — History,     ..... 

— Comparative  Forms, 

— Regular  Forms, 

—Irregular  Forms, 

CONJUNCTIONS — List,  Use,         .... 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES,     .... 

DEFECTIVE  VERBS,  ..... 

DERIVATION,     .... 

DERIVATIVE  ENDINGS, 

DIMINUTIVE  NOUNS, 

EUPHONIC  CHANGES, 

GENDER,  .... 

GEBUNDS — Forms,  Use,    . 

INFLECTION, 


66,  86 
1 

15,  73 
19 
42 
3 

13 
22 
38 
52 
49 
56 

70,  88 
73 
55 

16,  17,  22,  39,  66,  69 
72 
20 

18,  21,  24,  31,  51 
11 

62,86 
11,  14,  17 


90  INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 

INTERJECTIONS,           ...  71 

IRREGULAR  VERBS — List  of,                          .  64 

MOODS— Use, 38,  84 

NOUNS — Inflection,  Syntax,      .         .         .         .  16,  75 

NUMBER,            .                                                .  11 

NUMERALS — List,  Use,      .....  '26,  75 

PARTICIPLES — Forms,  Syntax,            .         .          .  62,  86 

PARTS  or  SPEECH,               .                   ...  11 

PASSIVE  VERBS,          ......  54 

PREPOSITIONS — List,  Use,           ....  70,  87 

PRONOMINAL  VERBS,           .....  54 

PRONOUNS — Demonstrative,      .         .         .         .  33,  79 

—Indefinite,      .  35,  80 

— Interrogative,         .          .         .          .  35,  79 

—Personal, 29,77 

— Possessive,    .....  32,  78 

—Reflective, 31 

—Relative, 34,79 

PRONUNCIATION — Vowels,  Diphthongs,  Consonants,  3 

PUNCTUATION,             ......  8 

SPANISH  LANGUAGE — History,    ....  v-xvi 

....  ....       —Historical  Observations,     10,  12,  14, 

16,  17,  20,  22,  23,  38,  47,  51 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOCD — Use,           ....  84 

SUPERLATIVES — Relative  and  Absolute,     .         .  24 

TENSES — Formation,  Use,         ....  40,  83 

UNIPERSONAL  VERBS,           .....  54 

V.,  VD.,  VM.,  &c., 47 

VERBS — Classification  and  Conjugation,            .         36-66 
Syntax,      .                            ...  82 


CORRIGENDA. 


L<}E  viii..  Hi 

ic  8, 

"     viii., 

;  25, 

"     viii.,     < 

<  26, 

"       xi., 

'  17, 

'    xiii., 

'    2, 

'            2 

'    2, 

'            2, 

'    3, 

3, 

'  1"', 

'           5, 

'     6, 

9, 

'  13, 

18, 

'  19, 

'         19, 

'    5 

'         21, 

'    4,' 

'         22 

'  31, 

23' 

'    4, 

'         28, 

'  34, 

'         31, 

'     5, 

'         31, 

'  10, 

"         33, 

'  32, 

33, 

'  32, 

34, 

'     2 

"         35, 

'      l', 

35, 

'   12, 

<         35, 

'  21, 

'         37, 

'     6, 

'         39, 

'     3, 

39, 

'  27, 

46, 

'     5, 

«         46, 

'  21, 

"         48, 

'   21, 

"         51, 

'    12, 

«         51, 

'   13, 

l'         51, 

'  25, 

'         54, 

'   15, 

54, 

'  ^1, 

«         56, 

'     9, 

57, 

'  10, 

'         59, 

'     8, 

«         61, 

'     6, 

«         64, 

'  28, 

1         65, 

!  11? 

69, 

69, 

"  25', 

'         69, 

"  29, 

'         71, 

'  29, 

'         76, 

'  16, 

76, 

'  23, 

1         77, 

'     5, 

80, 

<•  2$, 

for  mantainecl,  read  maintained. 

for  batallia  read,  batalla. 

for  classscal,  read  classical. 

for  indispensible,  read  indispensable. 

for  rnantained,    read  maintained. 

omit  R,  chicdere,  QUAEUERK. 

for  LACTEM,  read  LAC(TIS). 

for  yerrar  EKRARE,  read  yerro,  ERROREM. 

for  qnite,  read  quite. 

for  aqua,  read  agua. 

after  a,  insert  i;  line  2G,  forjiWor,  read  fior. 

first  word,  omit  s. 

for  Adjectivos,  read  Adjetivos. 

for  tanta,  read  tanto. 

5,  28,  for  menos,  read  menos. 

for  1-32  read  1-31. 

for  dl  si,  read  de  si. 

for  diamelo,  read  diomelo. 

for  estaplumci,  read  estapluma. 

for  silver,  read  silver. 

afcer  cs.°,  insert   in  poetry  and. 

for  mulieres,  read  mugeres. 

for  Pronouns,  read  Pronouns. 

for  inmdi'i,  read  envidia. 

for  pronominale,  read  pronominal. 

for  tendancy,  read  tendency. 

for  eis  read  (ab)eis. 

for  tedido,  read  tenido. 

for  Hubise,  read  Hubiese. 

for  SLA  (spanish),  read  sea. 

for  royo,  read  royo. 

for  create,  read  believe. 

for  hincio,  read  Mnchio, 

for  alabidosi,  read  alabadosr. 

for  v .-,»«,  read  o.s;  line  27,  Z/oiw  read  llucve. 

after  the  first  letter,  insert  e. 

for  st'ntid,  read  sentid. 

for  jiii>?^mos,  read  jugwemos. 

for  prevalrese,  read  prevalerse. 

for  consequir,  read  conseguir. 

for  2,  read  5. 

for  escribio,  read  escriMa ;  line  17,  omit  s. 

for  sabe,  read  conoce  d. 

for  inplying,  read  implying. 

for  pardon,  read  perdon. 

for  paplees,  read  papeles. 

for  ilostre,  read  ilustre. 

for  decimo  quarto,  read  dccima  (puarta. 

for  niwvo,  read  micro. 


A  MANUAL 


COMPARATIVE   GRAMMAE 


SPANISH     LANGUAGE 


HISTORICAL  INTRODUCTION 


W.    L.    MONTAGUE 

PROFESSOK   OF   FRENCH,  ITALIAN   ANO   SPANISH   IN   AMHEK8T   COLLEGE 


NEW  YORK 
HENRY    HOLT    AND    COMPANYr 

P.    W.    CHRlSTERN 

BOSTON:   SCHOENHOF  AND   MOELLER 


Entered  according-  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1873,  by 

WILLIAM   L.  MONTAGUE, 

>  s :.$/£ 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  or   Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE. 


This  Spanish  Grammar  has  been  prepared  to  meet  the 
wants  of  a  class  of  students  who  do  not  desire  to  speak 
Spanish,  or  have  not  time  to  learn  the  language  as  pre- 
sented in  the  grammars  now  in  use.  They  have  a  few 
weeks  (or  months  J  only  which  they  can  devote  to  that 
subject,  and  they  wish^  \p  be  introduced,  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable, to  the  literature,  and  gain,  if  possible,  some 
facility  in  reading  it.  They  want  only  so  much  of  gram- 
mar as  may  aid  them  in  attaining  the  desired  end. 

Such  works  as  those  of  De  Tornos  and  Sauer,  though 
admirably  adapted  to  the  use  of  those  who  wish  to  speak 
the  language,  are  not  suitable  for  those  whose  time  is 
so  limited.  With  this  want  in  view,  the  aim  has  been 
to  present  the  general  facts  of  the  language  in  a  com- 
prehensive and  simple  form. 

Among  these  essential  facts  have  been  included  the 
varieties  of  declension  and  conjugation,  in  order  that 
the  different  forms  of  inflected  words  may  be  readily 
distinguished.  The  most  common  uninflected  words 
have  also  been  given  with  their  significations  that  they 
may  be  committed  to  memory,  and  thus  translation  may 
be  facilitated. 

The  principles  of  pronunciation  have  been  stated  that 
the  students  may  have  an  idea  of  the  sound  of  the  Ian- 


IV.  PREFACE, 

guage  in  connection  with  the  reading.  A  brief  extract 
from  Cervantes  ("Don  Quixote")  has  been  introduced, 
presenting  nearly  all  the  peculiarities  of  sound,  which 
should  be  daily  read  until  every  word  can  be  easily  and 
accurately  pronounced.  This  same  extract  will  serve  as 
an  exercise  for  the  application  of  the  various  facts  re- 
specting the  parts  of  speech  as  they  are  consecutively 
learned  in  the  grammar.  Thus  in  two  or  three  weeks 
the  student  will  be  prepared  to  commence  the  reading 
of  Spanish  authors  with  some  degree  of  satisfaction. 

An  effort  has  also  been  made  to  give,  as  briefly  as  pos- 
sible, a  comparative  view  of  the  relations  of  the  Spanish 
to  the  parent  Latin  and  the  sister  languages,  the  French 
and  Italian.  As  no  etymological  dictionary  of  the  Span- 
ish language  was  accessible,  the  derivations  have  nearly 
all  been  traced  by  the  aid  of  such  dictionaries  in  the 
other  languages,  particularly  those  of  Littre,  "Diction- 
naire  de  la  Langue  Francaise,"  and  Bolza,  "Vocabolario 
Genetico-Etimologico  della  Lingua  Italiana,"  together 
with  Diez,  "Romance  Dictionary,"  ed.  by  T.  C.  Donkin. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  Manual  the  best  grammars 
in  Spanish,  French  and  English  have  been  consulted, 
together  with  the  latest  works  on  comparative  philology, 
but  special  acknowledgements  are  due  to  M.  Brachet 
and  Mr.  G-.  Ticknor,  from  whose  works  many  facts  have 
been  drawn  relating  to  the  history  of  the  language. 


INTRODUCTORY     SKETCH 


OF   THE 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  SPANISH   LANGUAGE. 


1.  The   earliest  inhabitants  of  Spain,   of  whom  we 
have  any  knowledge,  were  the  Iberians.     At  a  very  re- 
mote period,  they  seem  to  have  occupied  the  entire  pen- 
insula, south  of  the  Pyrenees,  but  of  their  origin  and 
history  scarcely  anything  is  known.     It  is  evident  that 
they  were  a  very  valiant  and  warlike  people,  since  their 
power  was  never  completely   subdued  by   any  of  the 
numerous  hosts  that  from  time  to  time  invaded  the  land. 
Traces  of  their  language  are  found  in  the  names  of  cer- 
tain rivers,  mountains  and  other  localities,  which  must 
have  been  given  in  those  early  ages.     A  remnant  of  this 
ancient  race  still  exists  among  the  mountains  of  North- 
western Spain,  maintaining  their  distinctive  customs  and 
institutions,  and  speaking  a  language  which  appears  to 
have  but  few  features  in  common  with  that  of  any  other 
people. 

2.  At  a  period  prior  to  any  authentic  record,  the 
foremost  of  those  tribes  migrating  from  the  East,  reach- 
ed the  western  shores   of  Europe   and   entered   Spain. 


VI.  INTRODUCTION. 

These  invaders  were  Celts,  and  after  a  severe  and  pro- 
tracted confest  for  the  supremacy,  they  ultimately  con- 
quered, and  gradually  incorporated  with  themselves,  the 
native  population,  with  the  exception  of  the  few  who 
took  refuge  among  the  mountains.  Of  this  union 
sprung  the  people  known  as  the  Celtiberians,  whom  the 
Romans  subsequently  found  occupying  the  principal 
part  of  the  country. 

3.  But  another  people,  the  Phoenicians,  had  at  some 
unknown  period  (B.  C.  1000?)    previously   visited   this 
El  Dorado  and  established  colonies  near  the   Pillars   of 
Hercules,  in  the  vicinity  of  Cadiz,    whence   they   drew 
much  of  that  wealth  that  gave  them  such   pre-eminence 
among  the   neighboring   nations.     Through  these  colo- 
nies the  Carthaginians  (from  a   sister   colony)    entered 
Spain,  and  subsequently,  after  the  first  Punic   War,  un- 
dertook the  conquest  and  occupation  of  the  whole  terri- 
tory.    In  this  undertaking  they  were   opposed   by   the 
Romans,  a  rival  power  whose  aid  was   first   invoked   by 
the  Grecian  colonists  living  on  the  Eastern  coast.     The 
Carthaginians  were  at  first  successful.     They   extended 
their  conquests  as  far  as  the  Iberus  (Ebro),  and  found- 
ed  Carthagena,   which   in   thirty   years    (according   to 
Livy)  became  one  of  the  richest   cities   in   the   world. 
But  the  Romans  under  the    Scipios   finally   gained   the 
ascendency  over  them,  and  at  the   end  of  the   second 
Punic  War,  B.  C.  201,   the   Carthaginians  were   driven 
from  the  country. 

4.  Then  commenced   that   violent     and  protracted 
contest  between   the   Romans   and   the   native   tribes, 
which,  after  nearly  two  centuries   of  blood   and   crime, 
ended   in   the   supremacy  of   Rome,   19  B.  C.     To   the 
effects  of  this  conquest  can  be  traced  the  chief  influences 


INTRODUCT1 

which  have  made  the  Spanish  language^  Till  I  flTTlTat  the 
present  day.  From  the  very  beginning  of  the  Roman 
invasion,  wherever  the  Roman  arms  were  triumphant, 
there  was  soon  established  the  military  colony,  with  the 
civil  administration,  the  civilization  and  language  of 
Rome. 

5.  Some  of  these  colonies,   like   Tarragona,    Cartha- 
gena  and  Cordova,  became  very  important  and  prosper- 
ous  long  before   the  subjugation  of   the    Central   and 
Northern  sections  of   the    country,  while  Cadiz  was   de- 
scribed by  Strabo  as  second  only  to   Rome  itself  in   re- 
gard to  activity,    wealth    and   population.     Spain   soon 
became  the  most  important   of  the   Roman    provinces. 
The  Spanish  subjects,    appreciating   the    superiority   of 
Roman  civilization,  adopted  the   customs  and   language 
of  their  conquerors,  and  many  attained  to  great  distinc- 
tion.    A  native  of  Cadiz,  (Balbus)  was  the  first  foreign- 
er who  reached  the  Consulship,  and  received  the  honors 
of  a  public  triumph,  and  Trajan,  a  native  of  Italica,  near 
Seville,  was  the  first   foreigner  who  occupied  the   impe- 
rial throne. 

6.  Under  the  beneficent  policy  of  Rome,  which  was 
exceptionally  mild  and  conciliatory  in  Spain,  great  at- 
tention and  encouragement  were  given  to  learning  and 
literature.     The  children  of  the  principal  native  families 
were  provided  with  accomplished  teachers,  who  gave  the 
best  education  in  the  purest  Latin.     As  a  consequence 
some  of  the  brightest  lights  in  Latin  literature  arose  in 
Spain.     The  poets  of  Cordova  spoke  Latin  so  well  that 
the  cultured  ear  of  Cicero  could  only  detect  something 
"  rude  and  foreign  "  in  their  accent.     Another  native  of 
Cordova,  Portius  Latro,  an  eminent  advocate,  was  the 
founder  of  a  noted  school  of  Rhetoric  at  Rome.     The 


INTBODUCTION. 

'^^*--^i      L  ^ 

best  writer  of  his  age  on  Agriculture  was  Columella,  a 
native  of  Cadiz.  Lucan,  Martial,  Quintillian  and  the 
two  Senecas,  were  Spaniards.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  a  pure  and  classic  Latin  was  both  taught  and  spo- 
ken in  Spain,  even  purer  than  was  known  in  Gaul,  or 
even  in  Italy  outside  of  Latium.  This  became  so  gen- 
erally accepted  that  a  Spanish  rhetorician  at  Rome, 
about  200  A.  D.,  mantained  that  the  Latin  was  the  uni- 
versal language  of  his  native  country. 

Yet  it  is  not  probable  that  this  universally  spoken  lan- 
guage was  identical  with  the  classical  dialect  of  litera- 
ture. Not  all  the  colonists  and  soldiers  spoke  the  Latin 
of  Cicero  and  Virgil.  The  popular  speech  of  the  un- 
lettered differed  from  the  pure  diction  of  the  cultured 
not  only  in  its  vocabulary  but  also  to  a  certain  extent, 
in  its  system  of  inflection.  This  separation  between  the 
"SERMO  NOBILIS"  and  the  "SERMO  PLEBEUS,"  "  RUSTICUS," 
which  had  commenced  even  in  Rome  as  early  as  the 
time  of  the  second  Punic  War,  had  widened  until,  in 
the  time  of  Caesar,  they  were  regarded  in  many  respects 
as  quite  distinct,  ("  CASTRENSE  VERBUM  ").  For  instance, 
instead  of  the  classical  "  EQUUS,"  "HEBDOMAS,"  "  PUGNA." 
the  people  and  the  soldiers  used  the  popular  caballus, 
septimana,  batualia,  words  which  now  exist  in  the  Span- 
ish forms  caballo,  semana,  batallia.  This  popular  dialect, 
closely  connected  with  the  purest  classscal  Latin,  became 
the  generally  spoken  language  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  peninsula.  Thus  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  during  the  400  years  of  uninterrupted  Roman  rule 
the  people  became  thoroughly  Romanized.  Roman  laws 
and  customs,  Roman  civilization  and  refinement  every- 
where prevailed. 

8.     Before  the   decline   of  this   civilization   another 


element  was  introduced  which  subsequently  modified 
greatly  both  the  character  and  the  language  of  the 
people.  Near  the  end  of  the  second  century  churches 
had  been  publicly  established,  and  not  long  after  Chris- 
tianity became  the  prevalent  religion  of  the  country. 
Although  the  prayers  and  services  of  the  church  were 
in  the  literary  dialect,  yet  the  clergy,  being  often  humble, 
unlettered  men,  more  anxious  to  convert  the  masses 
than  to  win  princes  and  nobles,  gave  all  their  instruc- 
tions in  the  more  simple,  popular  dialect.  Opposed  to 
the  pernicious  doctrines  of  the  heathen  religion,  they 
opposed  the  language  and  literature  in  which  such 
doctrines  were  taught.  Hence  the  church,  during  these 
centuries  of  confusion,  corruption  and  decline,  (the  3d 
to  the  8th),  was  one  of  the  strongest  agents  in  leading 
the  people  to  discard  the  old  Latin,  and  in  promoting 
the  growth  of  the  new  and  popular  speech  which  was  to 
become  the  vehicle  of  a  higher  and  nobler  civilization. 

9.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  the  literary 
dialect  had  already  extensively  declined,  and  given  place 
to  the  common  speech.  During  the  barbarian  invasions 
and  in  consequence  of  the  general  confusion  which  then 
prevailed  in  Southern  Europe,  literary  culture  almost 
ceased,  and  ignorance  everywhere  prevailed.  Then,  with 
very  few  exceptions,  the  popular  dialect  supplanted  the 
other.  The  latter  survived  in  the  official  language  of 
the  church,  though  not  understood  by  the  worshipers, 
nor  by  many  of  the  priests.  It  was  also  used  imperfectly 
in  a  sort  of  "  Low  Latin,"  by  some  monks,  officials  and 
scholastics  during  the  middle  ages,  but  it  was  no  longer 
the  language  of  the  people.  It  perished  with  the  aris- 
tocratic and  cultured  classes  who  had  spoken  it.  This 
is  fully  proved  by  the  fact  that  whenever  a  different 


X.  INTRODUCTION. 

word  was  employed  in  the  two  dialects  to  express  the 
same  idea,  it  is  the  popular  word  in  every  instance  that 
has  been  retained  in  the  modern  Romanic  languages. 
It  is  from  the  popular  Roman  speech  therefore  that  we 
must  trace  the  slow  development  of  the  Spanish,  as  well 
as  its  sister  tongues,  the  French  and  Italian. 

10  In  the  fifth  Century  another  very  important  rev- 
olution was  effected  which  gave  the  language  a  new  and 
quite  different  character  by  the  introduction  of  a  Teu- 
tonic element.  Barbarian  hordes  from  the  North,  con- 
stituting a  fifth  race  of  men,  quite  distinct  in  character, 
origin  and  language  from  any  of  the  four  races  that  had 
preceded  it,  commenced  their  invasions  by  crossing  the 
Rhine  in  406-7,  A.  D.  "  Tribe  succeeded  tribe  with  all 
the  facility  and  haste  of  a  nomadic  life,  which  knows 
neither  local  attachments  nor  local  interests,  and  with 
all  the  eagerness  and  violence  of  barbarians  seeking  the 
grosser  luxuries  of  civilization  ;  so  that  when,  at  the 
end  of  that  century,  the  last  of  the  great  warlike  emi- 
gration had  forced  for  itself  a  place  within  the  limits  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  it  may  be  truly  said  that  from  the 
Rhine  and  the  British  Channel  on  the  one  side,  to  Cala- 
bria and  Gibralter  on  the  other,  there  was  hardly  a  spot 
of  that  empire  over  which  they  had  not  passed,  and  few 
where  they  were  not  then  to  be  found  possessors  of  the 
soil  and  masters  of  the  political  and  military  power." 
First  to  cross  the  Pyrenees  were  the  Vandals,  Alani  and 
Suevi,  who,  after  ravaging  and  desolating  the  Peninsu- 
la, passed  on  to  Africa,  and  were  seen  no  more.  Then 
came  the  Visigoths,  whose  name  had  been  a  terror 
among  the  nations,  but  whose  fierce  barbarism  had  al- 
ready been  somewhat  softened  during  their  sojourn  in 
Italy,  by  the  genial  influences  of  climate,  civilization  and 


INTRODUCTION 


Christianity,  When,  therefore,  they  passed  through 
Southern  France  into  Spain,  (in  411)  they  entered  the 
country  as  fillies,  or  representatives  of  the  Empire.  As 
the  Empire  waned,  their  power  increased,  and  when  it 
fell,  they  held  undisputed  sway  throughout  the  country. 
Thpugh  their  character  had  been  to  a  certain  extent  civ- 
ilized and  christianized,  their  language  was  still  barba- 
rous. The  words  had  been  formed  in  ignorance,  and 
were  imperfect  and  undeveloped.  Bishop  Ulfilas  (370) 
had  found  it  almost  impossible  to  express  in  them  the 
simplest  ideas,  of  Christian  truth.  In  Spain  this  lan- 
guage was  never  written.  It  was  Teutonic,  or  German, 
and  had  scarcely  anything  in  common  with  the  Latin. 
Yet  the  rulers  and  their  subjects  were  so  intimately  con- 
nected and  so  mutually  dependent,  the  one  upon  the 
other,  that  some  medium  of  communication  in  the  com- 
mon intercourse  of  life  became  absolutely  indispensible. 
Hence  resulted  a  union  of  the  two  languages,  or  rather 
a  modification  of  the  Latin.  Although  the  Goths  had 
the  political  and  military  authority,  with  the  more  vig- 
orous character,  yet  they  were  comparatively  few  in 
numbers,  and  their  language  was  rude  and  unwritten, 
while  on  the  other  hand  their  subjects  far  more  numer- 
ous, possessed  whatever  of  civilization  yet  remained, 
with  a  more  refined  language,  with  written  laws  and 
literature,  and  the  vast  influence  of  the  church  with  its 
numerous  priests  giving  instruction  only  in  the  popular 
Latin.  The  Latin  therefore  prevailed,  and,  though 
greatly  corrupted,  formed  the  basis  and  by  far  the  most 
important  element  in  the  new  speech. 

11.  While  many  Gothic  words,  referring  chiefly  to 
names  of  familiar  objects,  food,  implements,  to  war  or  to 
the  peculiarities,  customs  and  institutions  of  the  race, 


Xll.  INTRODUCTION. 

were  introduced  into  the  Latin  vocabulary,  the  princi- 
pal changes  effected  were  those  of  sound,  inflection  and 
grammatical  structure.  The  uncultivated  ear  of  the 
Goth  failed  to  detect  those  nice  distinctions  of  sound 
which  gave  to  the  Latin  its  peculiar  elegance  and  varied 
signification,  hence  they  adopted  those  which  they 
heard  most  frequently,  while  they  introduced  some  of 
the  harsh  and  guttural  sounds  to  which  they  were  ac- 
customed, thereby  effecting  numerous  changes  in  the 
vowels  and  consonants.  They  readily  learned  the  indi- 
vidual words  of  the  Latin  vocabulary,  but  the  grammar 
was  altogether  too  philosophical  and  complicated. 
They  never  accurately  learned  its  forms  of  declension 
and  conjugation,  but  indicated  the  relations  of  nouns 
&c.,  by  the  article  joined  with  prepositions,  and  many 
of  the  changes  of  the  verb  by  auxiliaries. 

12.  In  the  eighth  century,  another  tremendous  revo- 
lution occurred,  and  the  sixth  race  with  peculiarities 
and  characteristics  no  less  striking  than  those  of  any 
that  had  preceded  it,  overran  the  country.  Inspired  by 
the  genius  and  fanaticism  of  Mohammed,  the  Arabs,  a 
"picturesque  and  extraordinary  people"  had  already 
gained  a  success  so  wide  and  rapid,  and  a  civilization  so 
refined  and  elevated  as  to  excite  the  wonder  and  admi- 
ration of  all  other  nations.  In  less  than  a  century  they 
had  conquered  Western  Asia  and  the  North  of  Africa. 
In  711  they  entered  Spain  near  Gibraltar,  won  the  bat- 
tle of  Xeres  after  a  desperate  struggle  of  seven  days, 
and  within  three  years  planted  the  standard  of  the 
Crescent  in  every  part  of  the  land,  except  the  free 
North-west.  But  there  behind  those  rugged  mountains 
Pelayo  and  his  followers  maintained  their  indepen- 
dence, and  preserved,  for  a  subsequent  triumph,  the 
Spanish  race  and  the  Christian  faith. 


INTKODUCT1ON.  Xlll. 

13.  In  the  Centre  and  South,  for  nearly  eight  centu- 
ries, the  Moors  mantained  a  splendid  kingdom.  The  arts 
and  sciences,  agriculture  and  commerce  all  nourished,  and 
their  Libraries  and  literary  institutions  became  so  cele- 
brated that  they  were  resorted  to  by  Christian  students 
from  all  countries  of  Europe.  Great  numbers  of  native 
Spanish  Christians  remained  as  conquered  subjects  in 
the  midst  of  this  flourishing  kingdom.  Though  obliged 
to  pay  a  double  tribute,  and  deprived  of  certain  political 
rights,  they  still  were  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion,  and  were  able  to  preserve  themselves  in  a  meas- 
ure as  a  separate  people.  But  in  process  of  time,  yield- 
ing somewhat  of  their  national  character,  they  came  to 
adopt  the  Moorish  customs  and  language,  so  that  they 
were  scarcely  distinguished  from  the  Moors  except  by 
their  religion.  Thus  they  gained  the  name  Mozarabes, 
i.  e.,  imitators  of  the  Arabs,  resembling  them  in  appear- 
ance bnt  not  in  reality.  A  writer  in  the  middle  of  the 
ninth  century  complains  that  hardly  one  Christian  in  a 
thousand  could  write  a  Latin  letter- to  his  brother  thoiigh 
many  could  rival  the  Moors  themselves  in  writing  Arabic 
poetry.  The  records  of  the  churches  were  kept  in  Ara- 
bic for  centuries,  and  the  Bishop  of  Seville  even  trans- 
lated the  Scriptures  into  that  language  because  his  people 
could  read  them  in  no  other. 

14.  Meanwhile  the  Christians  of  the  North  had  been 
living  among  the  rude  Basques  in  a  state  but  little  bet- 
ter than  that  of  savage  life.  Their  native  speech,  the 
vulgar  Latin  modified  by  Gothic  influence,  had  become 
still  more  degraded  in  consequence  of  general  ignorance 
and  constant  warfare.  When  therefore  they  began  the 
re-conquest  (restoration)  of  the  country  they  found 
themselves  in  contact  with  many  belonging  to  the  same 


Xiv.  \  -^-INTRODUCTION. 

race  with  themselves,  still  possessing  the  same  Christian 
faith,  united  in  sympathy  and  interest,  but  speaking  a 
language  quite  different  from  their  own.  A  modification 
of  the  two  idioms  became  therefore  a  necessity  in  order 
that  they  might  have  one  common  medium  of  commu- 
nication. This  modification  also  required  centuries  for 
its  accomplishment. 

15.  The  first  result  was  manifest  in  the  rise  of  sev- 
eral provincials  dialects,  as  the  Castilian,  Galician,  Cata- 
lonian,  Valencian  and  Andalusian.     These   all  had  the 
popular  Latin  as  a  basis,  and  differed  from  each  other 
according  as  they   possessed  the  Gothic  or  Arabic  ele- 
ment in  a  greater  or  less  degree,   or  were  influenced  by 
a  neighboring  idiom  as  the  Basque  or  Proven(;al.    Among 
these  dialects  the  Castilian,  in  consequence  of  its  rela- 
tions, to  the  Court  and  the  Civil  power,  gradually  gained 
the  ascendency  and  became  established  as  the  language 
af  Spain. 

16.  From  the  influences  exerted    during   those  cen- 
turies of  Arabic  dominion,  8th  to    15th,  the  Spanish  re- 
ceived   that   oriental   character  which  distinguishes   it 
from  all  the  other  languages  of  Europe.     This   is    seen, 
not  so  much  in  the  vocabulary  of   the    language,    as   in 
the  style  and  structure  of  the  idiom,  in   the  flowery  dic- 
tion, the  vivid  imagery,  the  extravagant  hyperboles  and 
the  frequent  use    of   long,    high    sounding    words   with 
which  the  Spaniard  loves  to  clothe  his  thoughts,  or  em- 
phasize his  strange  conceits. 

17.  At  precisely  what   period   the   Spanish   became 
recognized  as  a  language  and  was   reduced  to   writing, 
is  not  known.     The  oldest  discovered  document  belongs 
to  the  year  1155,  and  the    celebrated  poem   of  the   Cid 
was  probably  written  not  much  later,  and  certainly   be- 


INTRODUCTION. 

fore  the  year  1200.  It  was  during  the 
the  order,  of  Alfonso  the  Tenth,  (1252-82)  that  the 
Bible  was  translated  into  Spanish,  that  all  legal  docu- 
ments were  written  in  it,  that  it  became  the  language  of 
the  courts  of  justice,  and  that  the  foundation  was  laid 
for  its  use  and  authority  wherever  the  Spanish  power 
was  acknowledged. 

18.  Since  that  time  the   Spanish  has  undergone  no 
important  change  of  form,  (except  psrhaps  a  few  modi- 
fications in  Orthography,  see  Alphabet),  and  has  received 
but  comparatively  few  additions  to  its  vocabulary.     It 
introduced  a  few  terms  from  America,  from  the  East  In- 
dies, Italy  and  the  Netherlands.     For  a  time  it  yielded 
to  the  popular  and  powerful  influence  of  the  French, 
but  it  soon  recovered  its  independence  and  purity,  and 
now  it  stands  before  the  world  as  a  remarkable  historic 
monument.     It  has  taken  at  least  six  distinct  races  of 
men  nearly  three  thousand  years  to  construct  it.     Other 
nations  and   many  wandering  tribes  have  also  lent  a 
helping  hand.     But  the   Romans  were  the  chief  build- 
ers, as  six  tenths  of  the  structure,  at  least,  may  be  refer- 
red to  their  wonderful  energy  and  genius.     Less  than 
one  tenth  can  be  allowed  to  the  races  that  preceded 
them,  while  the  Goths  and  Arabs  brought  each  about 
one  tenth,  and  all  the  rest   combined  to  complete  the 
work.     The  Roman  portion  is  so  distinctly  marked  that 
many  pages  have  been   drawn  from  it  which  may  be 
read  either  as  Latin  or  Spanish. 

19.  Though  not  so  universally  known  among  other 
nations  as  the  French,  yet  it  is  spoken,   as   a  native 
tongue,  more  widely  than  any  other  Romanic  language,* 

*  It  has  been  estimated  that  fifty-five  millions  speak  Spanish,  forty-five 
millions  French,  fifty-five  millions  German  and  ninety  millions  English. 


XVI.  INTRODUCTION. 

and  more  closely  than  any  other  it  resembles  the  Latin, 
in  inflection,  in  strength,  and  dignity.  It  gives  promise 
of  being  the  best,  the  most  permanent,  and  the  most 
powerful  representative  of  the  old  Roman  speech. 

20.  As  an  eminent  linguist  has  said,  "  The  Spanish 
has  not  only  extended  its  dominion  over  distant  conti- 
nents, and  widely  scattered  islands,  it  has  enriched,  de- 
veloped, and  purified  its  own  form  and  substance,  until 
its  claims  to  be  one  of  the  noblest  languages  spoken  by 
man,  are  firmly  established.  To  the  soft  sounds  and 
the  abundant  vowels  of  the  Italian,  it  adds  greater  en- 
ergy and  dignity  ;  with  the  French  clearness  and  pre- 
cision it  combines  superior  elasticity,  and  incomparably 
greater  fitness  for  poetical  composition.  It  has  all  the 
sweetness  and  graceful  elegance  of  the  Portuguese, 
without  its  repulsive  nasal  sounds  and  incessant  hissing. 
Harmonious  in  sound,  dignified  and  courteous  in  struc- 
ture, it  thus  represents  all  that  is  noble,  grand,  and 
touching  in  the  character  of  a  nation,  once  the  great- 
est and  proudest  of  Europe,  and  commanding  the  re- 
spect and  sympathies  of  the  world,  even  in  its  fallen 
grandeur.  " 


SPANISH  GRAMMAR. 

(Gramatica  Expaltola). 


PART  FIRST. 

(Parte  Primera). 

FORMS    OF   WOBDS.     (ETYMOLOGY). 

(Etimologia). 


1.     ALPHABET.     (Alfabeto). 

THE  Spanish  Alphabet  is  composed  of  twenty-seven 
letters.  Though  most  of  them  are  the  representatives 
of  the  same  letters  in  Latin,  yet  many  have  other  Latin 
equivalents,  some  of  which  are  represented  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  : 

NAME.       LATIN  EQUIV.  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

A     ah  E,  bramar,  FREMERE. 

B     bay  r,  p,       bramido,   FREMITUS;  obra,  OPERA. 

C     thay  a,  Q,       areilla,  ARGILLAM;  cocer,  COQUERE; 

T,  ciencia,     SCIENTIAM. 

Ch  chay  CT,  LT,    hecho,       FACTUM;     noche,    NOCTEM; 

mucho,     MULTUM. 


ALPHABET. 


NAME. 


LATIN  EQUIV. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


D     day 
E     ay 

O,  M, 
PH, 
C,  L, 
Q, 

H     ah-tchay     F, 


F     ef-fay 
G     hay 


ee 
ho-tali 


R,  T,       chiedere,  QU^RERE;  padre,  PATREM, 
A,  i,        fee  he,    LACTEM;    enfermo,  INFIRMUM; 

f rente,  FRONTEM;    etcrno,  /ETERNUM. 

lirifa,    LYMPHAM. 

amigo,  AMicuM;,?ni«/e?',   MULIEREM; 

agua,     AQUAM. 

hacer,     FACERE;        h  igo,         FICUM. 
E,  escribir,  SCRIBERE;  dinero,  DENARIUM. 

G,  L,        teja,     TEGULAM;      hi  jo,     FILIUM, 
s,  x,       pajaro,  PASSEREM;     dije,      DIXI. 


L     ay-lay 


(sometimes  transposed), 
cared,  CARCEREM;  silbar,  SIBILARE. 
LI     el-lyay         CL,  FL,  llamar,  CLAMARE;    llama,  FLAMMAM; 

PL,         lluvia,  PLUVIAM. 
M     em-ay 

N     en-ay  M,  tan,        TAM;      inmenso,  IMMENSUM. 

N     en-nye-ay   GN,  MN,  leno,      LIGNUM;     suefio,      SOMNUM. 
NI,  NN,   seilor,    SENIOREM;  atio,         ANNUM. 
AU,  u,     oro,       AURUM;       onda,       UNDAM. 

qaeso,  CASEUM;    quebrar,    CREPARE. 

(sometimes  transposed), 
lirio,  LILIUM;    fraguar,  FABRICARE. 


TJ     oo  B,  c,         atisencia,    ABSENTIA;    auto,  ACTUM; 

p,  laatizar,  BAPTIZARE. 

V     vay 
X     ay -kiss. 

Y     ee-gree-ay-gah  G,  j,    yema,    GEMMAM;  yugo,  JUGUM. 
Z     thaytah        c,  D,  T,     paz,      PACEM;   juzgar,    JUDICARE; 
razon,    RATIONEM. 


O 

o 

AU; 

p 
Q 

K 

pay 

koo 
er-ray 

c, 

L, 

S 
T 

es-say 
tay 

CAPITAL  LETTERS. PRONUNCIATION.  6 

EEM.  The  letters  K  and  W  of  the  English  alphabet 
are  found  only  in  foreign  words. 

NOTE  1. — b  is  often  inserted,  sometimes  with  r,  after 
m:  hombro,  HUMERUM;  kotnbre,  HOMINEM. 

NOTE  2. — d  is  sometimes  inserted  after  /  or  n:  humil- 
de,  HUMILEM;  tendre,  TENERE. 

NOTE  3. — Lat.  i':  is  of  ;en  changed  to  ie :  tierra,  TERRAM; 
cierto,  CERTUM;  siempre,  SEMPER. 

NOTE  4. — Lat.  6  often  becomes  ue,  and  sometimes 
assumes  h  when  initial ;  baeno,  BONUM  ;  nuestro,  NOSTRUM  ; 
huevo,  OVUM. 

NOTE  5. — s  is  dropped,  or  an  e  is  prefixed  when  in 
the  Latin  it  was  followed  by  c,  P,  or  T  ;  cisma,  SCHISMA, 
esoudo,  SCUTUM  ;  esperar,  SPERARE  ;  estar,  STARE. 

NOTE  6. — -y  is  often  prefixed  to  initial  E  (HE)  yerrar, 
ERRARE  ;  yerba,  HERBAM. 

2.     CAPITAL  LETTERS.     ( Letras  Mayusculas. ) 

The  capital  letters  are  employed  less  frequently  than 
in  English.  Thus  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week, 
names  of  the  seasons,  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person 
and  the  interjection  O!  are  not  written  ^ith  capitals, 
except  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  or  of  a  line  of 
poetry.  Adjectives  of  nationality  are  written  with  a 
capital  only  when  used  substantively  and  applied  to  a 
person.  The  names  of  the  months  are  also  sometimes 
written  with  small  letters.  In  other  cases  the  capitals 
are  used  nearly  the  same  as  in  English. 

3.     PRONUNCIATION.     (Pronunciation). 

With  few  exceptions  the  Spanish  language  is  pro- 
nounced exactly  as  it  is  written,  and  therefore  presents 


4  VOWELS. DIPHTHONGS. 

less  difficulty  to  the  learned  than  most  of  the  other  for- 
eign languages. 

1.  H  is  the  only  silent  letter. 

2.  Every  letter,  except  c  and  g,  is  invariable  in  sound. 

4.     VOWELS.     ( Vocal  ex). 
The  vowels  are  pronounced  : 

1.  a   like  the  English  a  in  far.     Ex.     rasa,    house  ; 

padre,  father. 

2.  e  like  a  in  name.     Ex.     evo,  age;  hecho,  made. 

3.  i   like  e  in  me.  v  Ex.     niilo,  child;  ingles,  English. 

4.  o   like  o  in  obey.     Ex.     hora,  hour;  obra,  work. 

5.  u  like  oo  in  moon.     Ex.      uno,  one;  panto,  point. 
G.     ?/   like  e  in  me.     Ex.     ?/,  and  ;  my,  king. 

NOTE  1. — u  is  silent  in  the  syllable  gue,  gui,  que,  qui, 
unless  marked  with  the  diaeresis.  Ex.  guerra,  war  ; 
guitarra,  guitar  ;  que,  that;  quien,  who;  ayuero,  augury. 

NOTE  2.  —y  is  rarely  used  as  a  vowel  except  in  the 
conjunction  y,  and  at  the  end  of  certain  words.  Even 
in  these  its  place  is  frequently  supplied  by  i  in  modern 
orthography.  Ex.  nun  for  may,  very ;  though  this 
form  is  not  authorized  by  the  Academy. 

5.     DIPHTHONGS.     (Diptongo.*). 

Such  diphthongs  as  are  found  in  English,  French  and 
German  do  not  exist  in  Spanish,  since  every  vowel  must 
be  distinctly  pronounced  ;  but  two  and  sometimes  three 
vowels  may  form  one  syllable.  Ex.  hay,  there  is  ; 
b uey,  ox. 

The  diphthongs  recognized  by  the  Spanish  Academy- 
are,  ai,  (ay),  au,  ea,  ei,  (ey),  eo,  eu,  ia,  ie,  io,  iu,  oe,  oi, 
(oy),  ua,  ue,  ui,  (uy),  uo. 

NOTE. — Whenever  one  of  the  vowels  is  accented  there 
is  no  diphthong,  since  each  vowel  then  belongs  to  a  sepa- 
rate syllable.  Ex.  brio,  strength;  frio,  cold. 


CONSONANTS. 

6.     CONSONANTS.     (Consonantes.) 

B  has  very  nearly  the  sound  of  the  same  letter  in 
English,  but  is  uttered  with  less  firmness.  It  some- 
what resembles  the  sound  of  v,  especially  in  the  middle 
of  a  word,  and  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  that  letter, 
though  the  two  sounds  are  qnite  distinct.  Ex.  bolsa, 
purse  ;  beber,  to  drink  ;  buscar,  to  seek. 

(7,  before  consonants  and  the  vowels  a,  o,  u,  is  pro- 
nounced like  k  in  English  ;  before  e  and  i  it  has  the 
sound  of  th  in  thin.  Ex.  claro,  clear;  caso,  case  ;  cosa, 
thing ;  cual,  which  ;  centra,  centre  ;  cielo,  heaven  ;  lec- 
cion,  lesson. 

Ch,  a  single  letter  of  double  form,  is  pronounced  like 
ch  in  church.  Ex.  .cache,  coach  ;  muchacho,  boy. 

NOTE. — When  ch  is  found  in  words  of  Greek  or  H'e- 
brew  origin  it  has  the  sound  of  k,  but  such  words  are 
now  written  with  c,  or  qu  before  e  or  i.  Ex.  caos, 
chaos  ;  quimica,  chemistry. 

D  has  the  same  sound  as  in  English,  except  when  it 
is  final  or  between  two  vowels,  when  it  is  much  softer, 
resembling  the  sound  of  th  in  the,  (not  in  thin).  Ex. 
dama,  lady  ;  de,  of ;  Madrid,  Madrid  ;  todo,  all. 

F  is  sounded  as  in  English,  and  is  now  used  instead 
of  ph.  Ex.  fama,  fame  ;  fuego,  fire  ;  filosofia,  philos- 
ophy. 

G  before  consonants  and  the  vowels  a,  o,  u,  has  the 
sound  of  the  English  g  in  good  ;  but  before  e  and  i  it 
has  a  very  strongly  aspirated  guttural  sound  which  has 
no  equivalent  in  English,  though  the  h,  when  strongly 
aspirated  in  the  throat,  somewhat  resembles  it.  This 
guttural  sound  is  stronger  in  Castillian  than  in  any  other 
dialect.  Ex.  grande,  great  ;  pagar,  to  pay ;  negocio, 
business  ;  gusto,  taste  ;  gente,  people  ;  gigante,  giant. 


O  CONSONANTS. 

NOTE  1. — In  modern  orthography  j  is  written  instead 
of  g,  in  many  words  in  which  this  letter  would  have  the 
guttural  sound. 

NOTE  2. — In  the  syllables  gue  gui  the  g  retains  the 
hard  sound,  although  the  u  is  silent.  Ex.  Miguel, 
Michael  ;  guia,  guide. 

NOTE  3. — Gn  is  pronounced  like  the  English  gn  in 
dignity.  Ex.  dig  no,  worthy  ;  signo,  sign. 

H  is  (always  silent)  merely  a  sign  marking  the  ety- 
mology of  words,  and  is  now  omitted  in  many  words 
formerly  written  with  -ch,  ph,  th.  Ex.  hace,  he  makes  ; 
kigo,  fig ;  Crisliano,  Christian  ;  filologo  philologist  ; 
teafrOy  theatre. 

NOTE. — His  written  before  words  beginning  with  ue 
and  ie.  Ex.  huerta,  orchard  ;  huevo,  egg  ;  kielo,  ice  ; 
fiierro,  iron. 

J  has,  before  all  the  vowels,  the  aspirated  guttural 
sound  that  is  given  to  g  before  e  and  i.  Ex.  jar  din, 
garden  ;  jefe,  chief  ;  jiga,  jig  ;  joven,  youth  ;  juez,  judge 

NOTE. — J  is  now  often  written  for  g,  and  generally  for 
x.  when  these  letters  would  have  the  aspirated  guttural 
sound.  Ex.  mujer,  woman  ;  Mejico,  Mexico  ;  Don 
Quijote,  Don  Quixote. 

L,  M,  N,  and  P  have  the  same  sounds  as  in  English. 
Ex.  labor,  labor  ;  madre,  mother  ;  nada,  nothing  ;  pa- 
pel,  paper. 

LI,  another  single  letter  of  double  form,  is  pronounced 
nearly  like  Hi  in  brilliant.  Ex.  Have,  key  ;  lleno,  full ; 
brillante,  brilliant ;  llorar,  to  weep  ;  llavia,  rain. 

N  (con  tilde)  has  very  nearly  the  same  sound  as  ni  in 
union.  Ex.  Espafla,  Spain  ;  nino,  child. 

Q,  found  only  with  ue  and  ui,  has  the  sound  of  k. 
Ex.  queso,  cheese  ;  quince,  fifteen. 


CONSONANTS.  7 

NOTE. — In  other  combinations  it  has  been  replaced  by 
c.  Ex.  CLiando,  when  ;  cuanto,  how  much. 

E  is  pronounced  nearly  the  same  as  in  English.  Ex. 
carta,  letter  ;  oro,  gold  ;  but  at  the  beginning  of  a  word, 
or  of  the  second  part  of  a  compound  word,  when  double, 
or  preceded  by  /,  n  or  s,  it  should  be  uttered  strongly, 
with  a  rolling  sound.  Ex.  rasa,  rose  ;  maniroto,  ex- 
travagant ;  perro,  dog  ;  malrotar,  to  waste;  honra,  honor; 
Israel,  Israel ;  alrededor,  around. 

S  has  always  the  sharp  hissing  sound  of  the  English 
s  in  sister.  Ex.  solo,  alone  ;  ca.sa,  house. 

T  is  pronounced  nearly  as  in  English,  but  somewhat 
softer.  Ex.  templo,  temple  ;  baton,  button. 

F  has  the  same  sound  as  in  English,  but  is  less  dis- 
tinctly uttered,  like  b,  for  which  it  is  often  taken.  Ex. 
vaca,  cow  ;  vida,  life  ;  voluntad,  will. 

X,  in  the  middle  of  words  has  the  sound  of  ks  or  cs. 
Ex.  examen,  examination  ;  maxima,  maxim. 

NOTE  1. — The  former  guttural  sound  of  x  has  been 
replaced  by^'.  Ex.  relox,  reloj,  clock,  watch. 

NOTE  2. --Some  substitute  s  for  x  before  a  consonant, 
as  estrangero,  foreign  ;  but  this  practice  is  unauthorized. 

Y3  when  a  consonant,  is  pronounced  nearly  like  the 
English  y  in  year.  Ex.  yo,  I  ;  leyes,  laws. 

Z  has  always  the  sound  of  th  in  thin.  Ex.  caza, 
chase  ;  zefiro,  zephyr  ;  zizafta,  discord  ;  zona,  zone  ; 
azucar,  sugar.  This  sound  is  of  Arabic  origin.  Z  is 
now  written  in  place  of  the  ancient  9  as  Zaragoza  for 
Carago9a. 

NOTE  1. — A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels  is 
always  joined  to  the  latter  vowel.  Ex.  a-mor,  le-che, 
ga-llo. 


8  PUNCTUATION. 

NOTE  2. — Two  consonants  between  two  vowels  are 
separated,  unless  the  former  be  /,  or  any  mute  except  t, 
followed  by  /  or  r  when  both  are  joined  to  the  following 
vowel.  Ex.  cm-tor  ;  azu-fre  ;  ta-Ua  ;  at-leta. 

NOTE  3. — Of  three  consonants  the  last  only,  I  and  r 
excepted,  belongs  to  the  following  svllable.  Ex.  cons- 
tar. 

NOTE  4. — No  Spanish  word  or  syllable  can- commence 
with  s  followed  by  a  consonant.  Ex.  ciencia,  SCIENTIAM  ; 
estado,  STATUM  ;  ins-pirar,  IN-SPIRARE. 

NOTE  5. — The  consonants  c,  n,  and  r  only  are  doubled. 
In  such  c.ases  they  must  be  pronounced  separately.  Ex. 
Facdon,  Itinato,  hierro. 

1.     PUNCTUATION.     (Puntuacion). 

The  marks  of  punctuation  are  generally  employed  in 
the  same  manner  as  they  are  in  English. 

EXCEP.  1. — The  apostrophe  is  not  used. 

EXCEP.  2.— The  marks  of  interrogation  and  exclama- 
tion, (in  addition  to  the  English  usage),  are  generally 
placed  inverted  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  inter- 
rogative or  exclamatory,  unless  the  preceding  words 
convey  a  sufficient  warning  to  the  reader.  Ex.  &  Ha- 
Uan  el-'os  f  ranees  f  Do  they  speak  French  ?  /  Ojald 
cesara  la  yaerra  !  Would  to  God  the  war  would  end ! 

Exc.  3. — The  sign  (~)  called  tilde,  which  is  peculiar 
to  the  Spanish  language,  is  placed  over  the  n  in  order 
to  indicate  the  liquid  sound.  (See  G.  N). 

Exc.  4. — The  acute  accent  ( ' )  is  used  in  the  follow- 
ing cases  :  (1)  It  is  placed  over  the  vowels  a,  e,  6,  u, 
when  used  either  as  prepositions  or  conjunctions.  (2) 
It  is  given  to  certain  words  to  distinguish  them  from 
others  of  the  same  form  having  a  different  signification. 
Ex.  tu,  thou  ;  tu,  thy  ;  el,  he  ;  el,  the  ;  si,  if  ;  si,  yes  ; 
porque,  because  ;  porqiie,  why?  &c.  (3)  It  is  placed 


SYLLABIC    ACCENTS.  9 

over  the  vowel  on  which  the  stress  is  laid  in  pronuncia- 
tion, whenever  there  is  a  deviation  from  the  general 
rules  of  syllabic  acceDt.  Ex.  Idpiz,  pencil  ;  dllit  there; 
periodico,  newspaper;  alcazar,  palace. 

8.     SYLLABIC  ACCENT      (Acento  Silabico). 

The  syllabic  accent,  or  tbe  stress  which  is  laid  upon  a 
certain  syllable  in  every  word,  is  determined  by  the  fol- 
lowing general  rules  : 

1.  Words  that  end  in  a  consonant  are  accented  on 
the  last  syllable.     Ex.     comer,  to  eat  ;  papel,  paper. 

2.  Words  th.it  end  in  a  vowel,  or  in  the  diphthongs 
ending  in  a,  e,  o,  are  accented  on  the  penultimate  sylla- 
ble.    Ex.    padre,  fatlur  ;  tetoro,  treasure  ;  aqua,  water  ; 
gloria,   glory ;    nadie.  nobody  ;    imperio,  empire  ;    linea, 
line  ;  virgineo,  virginal ;  heroe,  hero  ;  mutuo,  mutual. 

NOTE  1. — The  verbal  termination  ia,  being  a  contrac- 
tion of  iba,  retains  the  accent  on  the  i.  Ex.  tenia,  ten- 
dria. 

NOTE  2. — The  consonants  n  and  s  in  the  plural  of 
verbs  and  nouns  do  not  affect  the  accent,  which  remains 
the  same  as  in  the  singular  :  kablo,  hahlan  ;  libra,  libros. 

EXCEP.     cardder,  cara'itire*,  regimen,  regimenes. 

NOTE  3. — Propsr  names  terminating  in  $  or  ez,  and 
words  of  the  same  character  derived  from  the  Greek 
or  Latin,  are  accented  on  the  penult.  Ex.  Cervantes, 
Lopez,  Cesar,  crisis. 

NOTE  4. — Words  ending  in  ia,  denoting  the  place 
where  anything  is  made  or  sold,  are  accented  on  the  i. 
Ex.  Sastrena,  tailor's  shop  ;  libreria,  book-store  ;  pana- 
dena,  bakery. 

NOTE  5. — In  diphthongs  not  final  the  stress  usually 
falls  upon  the  former  vowel.  Ex.  baile,  dance  ;  paasa, 
pause  ;  aceite,  oil  ;  deuda,  debt. 

Exc.     When  the  first  vowel  is  i  or  u ;  when  the  word 

2 


W   .  V  READING    EXERCISE. 

'•-...'*        '•  •T*'*"   " 

containing  the  diphthong  is  a  monosyllabic  substantive, 
a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  an  indeclinable  word, 
the  stress  is  laid  upon  the  second  vowel.  Ex.  cielo, 
heaven  ;  Dios,  God  ;  pais,  country;  oir,  to  hear;  avnque, 
though  ;  ntano,  roan  ;  rut-go,  request  ;  ruido,  noise. 

NOTE  6. — The  addition  of  one  or  more  pronouns  to 
the  verb  does  not  affect  the  position  of  the  accent.  Ex. 
did,  he  gave  ;  diomelo,  he  gave  it  to  me  ;  compra,  he 
buys  ;  compramelo,  he  buys  it  for  me. 

OBS. — The  accent  is  generally  retained  upon  the  same 
syllable  as  in  the  Latin,  except  in  verbs  derived  from 
those  of  the  third  conjugation,  as  prirwipe,  PRINCIPEM  ; 
impresion,  IMPRESSIONEM  ;  fiel.  FIDELEM  ;  hacc'r,  FACERE  ; 
escribir,  SCRIBERE. 

READING  EXERCISE. 

£  Quien  duda  sino  que  en  los  venideros  tiempos,  cuan- 
do  saiga  a  luz  la  verdadera  historia  de  mis  famosos 
hechos,  que  el  sabio  que  los  escribiere,  no  ponga,  cuando 
llegue  a  contar  esta  mi  primera  salida  tan  de  mafiana, 
de  esta  manera  ?  Apenas  habia  el  rubicundo  Apolo  ten- 
dido  por  la  faz  de  la  ancha  y  espaciosa  tierra  las  dora- 
das  hebras  de  sus  herinosos  cabellos,  y  apenas  los  peque- 
fios  y  pintados  pajarillos  con  sus  arpadas  lenguas  habian 
saludado  con  dulce  y  mehfl.ua  armonia  la  venida  de  la 
rosada  aurora,  qae  por  las  puertas  y  balcones  del  man- 
chego  horizonte  a  los  mortales  se  mostraba,  cuando  el 
famoso,  caballero  D.  Quijote  cle  la  Mancha,  dejando  las 
ociosas  plum  as,  subio  sobre  su  famoso  caballo  Koci- 
nante,  y  comenzo  a  caminar  por  el  antiguo  y  cono- 
cido  campo  de  Montiel  (y  era  la  verdad  que  por  el 
caminaba),  y  afiadio  dicienclo  :  Dichosa  edad  y  siglo  di- 
choso  aquel,  adonde  saldran  a  luz  las  famosas  hazafias 
mias,  dignas  de  entallarse  en  bronces,  esculpirse  en 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH. — -NUMBER. 

marmoles  y  pintarse  en  tablas,  para  memoria  en  lo 
future,  j  Oh  tu,  sabio  encantador,  quienquiera  que  seas, 
a  quien  ha  de  tocar  el  ser  cronista  de  esta  peregrina 
historia !  ruegote,  que  no  te  olvides  de  mi  buen  Roci- 
nante,  conipanero  eterno  mio  en  todos  mis  caminos  y 
carreras. 

9.     PARTS  OF  SPEECH.     (Partes  de  la  Oration}. 

The  Spanish  language  is  composed  of  ten  different 
species  of  words,  namely  :  Article,  Noun,  Adjective, 
Pronoun,  Verb,  Participle,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Con- 
junction, and  Interjection.  The  definitions  are  the 
same  as  in  English.  The  Grammar  of  the  Academy 
gives  only  nine  parts  of  speech,  including  the  adjective 
in  the  noun. 

1.  The  article,  adjective,  noun,  pronoun,  and  partici- 
ple are  inflected  to  express  declension  ;  number,  gender 
and  case. 

2.  Adjectives  are  also  inflected  to  express  compari- 
son. 

3.  The    verb   is   inflected   to    express    conjugation  ; 
voice,  mode,  tense,  number  and  person. 

4.  The  adverb,  preposition,  conjunction  and  inter- 
jection are  uninflected. 

10.     NUMBER.     (Namero). 

There  are  two  numbers,  singular  and  plural,  having 
the  same  use  and  signification  as  in  English. 

11.     GENDER.     (Genero). 

All  nouns  are  either  masculine  or  feminine;  (mascu- 
lino  d  femenino).  When,  however,  a  substantive  is  used 
objectively,  or  an  adjective,  or  pronoun,  is  used  substan- 


12  GENDER. 

lively  representing  an  abstract  idta,  or  a  sentence,  it 
is  said  to  be  of  the  neuter  gender.  Ex.  Todo  era 
graiide  en  este  principe,  lo  Cristiano,  h  rey,  lo  caption  ; 
Everything  was  great  in  this  prince,  the  Christian,  the 
king,  the  captain.  Lo  Imcno.  the  good  ;  e.so  tj.s  nada, 
that  is  nothing. 

The  gender  of  nouns  can  be  determined  either  by 
their  signification  or  their  termination. 

1.  Nouns,   which  represent  male  beings,   or  which 
denote  dignities,  professions,  employments,  &c.,  appro- 
priate to  men,  are  masculine.     Ex.     homlre,  man  ;  ca- 
IiaHo,   horse  ;    emperador,    emperor  ;    dentista,    dentist. 
EXCEP.     haya,  (or  jaca),  nag,  pony. 

2.  Nouns  which  represent  female  beings,  or  which 
denote  dignities,  professions,  employments,  &c.,  appro- 
priate   to   women,   are   feminine.     Ex.     Maria,   Mary  ; 
leona,  lioness  ;  reina,  queen  ;  co$turera,  seamstress. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  a,  d,  ion.  are  generally  feminine; 
those  ending  in  other  letters  are  for  the  most  part  mas- 
culine-; buf  there  are  many  exceptions.     Ex.    tinta,  ink; 
virtud,  virtue  ;  leccion,  lesson. 

NOTE  1. — The  names  of  the  seasons,  months  and  days 
are  masculine,  except  la  primavera,  Spring. 

NOTE  2. — Names  of  rivers  and  mountains  ;  of  winds, 
countries,  towns,  villages,  arts  and  sciences,  not  ending 
in  a,  are  masculine. 

NOTE  3. — Names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and 
of  the  figures  of  rhetoric,  poetry  and  grammar,  are 
feminine.  EXCEP.  pleonasmo,  pleonasm. 

OBS. — The  suppression  of  the  neuter  gender  occurred, 
to  some  extent,  in  the  Low  Latin,  even  before  the 
formation  of  the  Romanic  languages.  In  Plautus  and 
in  the  inscriptions  of  the  third  century,  in  the  Salic  Law 
and  in  writings  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  many 


CASE. 


13 


words  that  were  neuter  in  classic  Latin  are  found  in  the 
masculine,  and  some  neuter  plurals  are  found  in  the 
feminine  ;  as  ^vus,  DORSUS,  MEMBRUS.  VESTIGIUS,  PECOUAS, 

VESTIMENTAS,   &C. 

Words  that  were  masculine,  or  feminine,  in  Latin, 
retain  the  same  gender  in  Spanish  with  very  few  excep- 
tions. Those  that  were  neuter  are  generally  masculine. 

12.     CASE.     (Caso). 

The  relations  of  case,  which  were  expressed  in  Latin 
by  a  change  of  termination,  are  generally  indicated  in 
Spanish,  as  in  Italian  and  French,  by  prepositions. 
Ho  nee  some  maintain  that  nouns  have  no  case,  others 
admit  two  cases,  the  subject,  (or  nominative),  and  ob- 
ject, (objective).  The  Spanish  Academy  recognizes 
six  cases  : 

1.  The  nominative,  corresponding  to  the  same  case 
in  English,  is  the  subject  of  the  verb,  and  is  the  simple 
form  of  the  noun.     Ex.     Dios  es  el  criador  del  m  undo ; 
Grod  is  the  creator  of  the  world. 

2.  The  genitive,  expressing  possession,  origin,  mate- 
rial, part,  characteristic,  &c.,  is  indicated  by  the  prepo- 
sition de,  of  ;    and  usually  corresponds  to  the   English 
possessive,  or  the  objective  with  of.     Ex.     Los  libros  de 
mi  hermanp,  my  brother's  books.     Las  casas  de  piedra 
de  Paris  son  hermosas,  the  stone   houses  of   Paris   are 
beautiful.     He  visto  d  la  Venus  de  Medicis,  I  have  seen 
the  Medicean  Venus.     Los  vinos  de  Espana  son  buenos, 
the  wines  of  Spain  are  good. 

3.  The  dative,   expressing  tendency,  is  indicated  by 
the  preposition  a,  or  para,  to,  or  for.     Ex.     Escribe  una 
carta  a  la  reina,  he  writes  a  letter  to  the  queen .     Esla 
flor  es  para  ella,  this  flower  is  for  her. 


14  CASE. 

4.  The  accusative,  expressing  the  direct  object,  or  the 
adverbial  relations  of  time,  &c.,  is  of  the  same  form  as 
the  nominative.     Ex.      Compra  un  pafiuefa  de  hilo  (lino) 
todos  /G.S'  meses,  he  buys  a  linen  handkerchief  every  month. 

NOTE. — When  a  person,  or  a  thing  personified,  is  the 
object  of  an  active  verb  the  noun  is  always  preceded  by 
the  preposition  a.  Ex.  He  visto  d  Juan,  I  have  seen 
John. 

5.  The  vocative,  or  form  of  address,  is  the  same   as 
the   nominative.      Ex.     /  0    Carlo* !   que   ha    hecho   V! 
O  !  Charles,  what  have  you  done  ! 

6.  The   ablative,   expressing  manner,  means,  motion, 
(from),  place,  time,  &c.,  is  indicated  by  the  prepositions 
con,  with  ;  de,  from  ;  en  in  ;  por,  by  ;  sin,  without  ;  &c. 
Ex.     Hah! a  f ranees  con  facilidad,  he  speaks  French  with 
facility.      Vino  de  Boston  por  el  camino  de  hierro,  (ferro- 
carrii),  en  cuatro  horas,  he  came  by  rail  from  Boston  in 
four  hours.     Eda)m  en   Londres  sin  dinero.     I  was  in 
London  without  money. 

OBS. — The  loss  of  the  Latin  case  endings  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  effected  at  onjce.  There  was  a  time 
when  t;ie  nominative  and  accusative  were  still  in  use, 
the  others  having  been  suppressed  probably  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  This  usage  became 
fixed  for  a  time  in  the  Proven<;al  and  Old  French,  but 
the  change  went  on  in  the  Italian  and  Spanish  till  in 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  they  were  languages 
without  case  endings,  while  the  others  still  employed 
two,  the  subjective  and  the  objective. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  MUKUS,  mur*,  MURI,  mar, 

Ace.  MURUM,          mur,  MUROS,        murs. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  subjective  case  ending 
was  also  lost,  and  the  objective  became  the  accepted 
form  in  all  cases,  and  hence  s  became  the  distinctive 
mark  of  the  plural  number. 


ARTICLES.  15 

"  There  is  no  trace  in  the  Italian  and  Spanish  lan- 
guages of  any  distinction  of  cases." — G.  C.  LEWIS. 

13.     ARTICLES.     (Articulos). 

The  article  is  much  more  closely  connected  with  the 
noun,  in  Spanish,  than  it  is  in  English.  It  serves  to 
mark  its  gender  and  number,  and  to  determine  the  ex- 
tent of  its  signification.  There  are  two  articles,  the 
definite,  d,  fa  h,  the  ;  and  the  indefinite,  un,  una,  a 
or  an. 

I.  The  definite  article  is  thus  inflected  : 

Singular.  Plural. 

Mas.         Fern.  Neut.  Mas.        Fern. 

Norn,    elj           la,  lo,  los,           las,  the. 

Gen.     del,         de  la,  de  lo,  de  los,      de  las,  of  the. 

Dat.      al,          a  la,  d  lo,  d  los,       d  las,  to  the. 

Ace.      el,           la,           h,  los,          las,  the. 

Abl.       del,         de  la,  de  lo,  de  los,     de  las,  from  the. 
con,  en,  par,  &c.,  el,  la,  lo,  los,  las,  with,  in,  by,  &c.,  the. 

NOTE  1. — The  masculine  form  el  in  the  singular  is 
always  contracted  with  de  and  d  into  del,  a1. 
NOTE  2. — The  neuter  form  lo  has  no  plural. 
NOTE  3. — The  article  is  not  used  in  the  vocative  case. 

II.  The  indefinite  article  is  thus  inflected  : 

Singular.  Plural. 

Mas.       Fern.  Mas.         Fein. 

N.  &  A.     un,         una,  a,  an,        unos,         unas,        some. 

G.  &  Ab.  de  un,    de  una,  of  a,  an,    de  unos,   de  unas,    of  some. 

Dat.  d  un,     a  una,  to  a,  an,    a  unos,     a  unas,     to  some. 

NOTE  1. — As  the  Spanish  language  has  no  apostro- 
phe, the  final  vowel  of  de  and  of  the  article  is  not  elided 
as  in  French  and  Italian.  The  only  euphonic  change  is 


16  NOUNS. 

the  following  :  When  the  feminine  noun  commences 
with  an  accented  a  or  ha,  the  masculine  article  el  is  used 
instead  of  la.  Ex.  el  ahna,  the  soul  ;  el  ham^re,  hun- 
ger ;  but  la  amir/a,  the  friend. 

NOTE  2. — The  article  precedes  the  noun  and  agrees 
with  it  in  gender,  number  and  case. 

OBS. — Although  the  Latin  had  no  article,  the  Romans 
often  used  the  demonstrative  pronoun  ILLE  to  mark  an 
object  more  definitely  Thus  we  find  in  Cicero,  ANNUS 
ILLE  QUO  ;  ILLE  ALTER,  &c.  Tins  usage,  somewhat  rare 
in  classical  Latin,  became  quite  common  in  the  popular 
speech,  and  the  pronoun  passed  subsequently  into  the 
definite  article  of  the  Romanic  languages. 

Sing.  ILLE,  ILLUM,  ILLAM,  ILLUD ;  el,  la,  lo;  It.  il,  lo,  la  ;  Fr.  le,la. 
Plur.  ILLI,  ILLOS,  ILLAS  ;  lox,  If  in ;  i,gli,le;  les. 

The  indefinite  article  is  derived  from  the  numeral 
adjective  UNUM,  UNAM  ;  un,  una ;  It.  an,  uno,  una;  Fr. 
un,  une. 

14.     NOUNS.     (Nombres). 

Tiie  declension  of  the  noun  is  mainly  expressed  by 
that  of  the  article  which  precedes  it. 

1.     Common  Nouns. 
(a)     Masculine,  padre,  PATREM  ;   It.  padre,    Fr.  pere. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Norn. 

el  padre, 

the  father  ; 

los  padres, 

the  fathers. 

Gen. 

del  padre, 

of  the  father  ; 

de  los  padres, 

of  the  fathers. 

Dat. 

al  (para  el) 

to  (for)  the 

d  (para)  los, 

to  (for)  the 

padre, 

father  ; 

padres, 

fathers. 

Ace. 

(al)  padre, 

the  father  ; 

(a)  los  padres 

,    the  fathers. 

Voc. 

padre, 

father  ; 

padres, 

fathers. 

Abl. 

con,  de, 

with,  from, 

con,  de, 

with,  from, 

en,  por, 

in  by, 

&c., 

&c. 

sin,  sobre 

without,  above 

los  padres, 

the  fathers. 

el  padre, 

the  father  ; 

NOUNS.  17 

(b)  Feminine,  rosa,  ROSAM,     It.  rosa,  Fr.  rose. 

N.  &  Ace.       la  rosa,  the  rose,  las  rosas,  the  roses. 

G.  &  Abl.       de,  &c.,  la  rosa,  of,  &c.  de,  &c.,  las  rosas. 

Dat.  d  (para)  la  rosa,  a  (para)  las  rosas. 

(c)  Neuter,   bucno,  BONUM.     It.  bvono.  Fr.  bon. 

N.  &  Ace.        lo  Imeno,  the  good. 

G.  &  Abl.         de.  tfec.,  lo  Imeno,  of,  from,  &c.,  the  good. 

Dat.  di  (par  a)  lo  l>ueno,  to,  (for)  the  good. 

2.     Proper  Nouns. 

With  proper  names  the  article  is  commonly  omitted, 
and  the  relations  of  case  are  expressed  by  the  preposi- 
tions only.  Ex. 

N.  &  Voc.  Pedro,  Peter. 

G.  &  Abl.  de,  con,  por,  &c.,  Pedro,  of,  from,  with,  &c.,  Peter. 

Dat.  a-,  para,  Pedro,  to,  for,  Peter. 

Ace.  d  Pedro,  Peter. 

REM. — The  only  inflection  of  the  noun  itself  is  made 
to  indicate  the  plural  number,  and  sometimes  the  femi- 
nine gender.  Ex.  casa,  house  ;  casas,  houses  ;  libro, 
book  ;  libros,  books  ;  hijo,  son  ;  hija,  daughter  ;  patron, 
patron  ;  patrona,  patroness. 

OBS. — The  distinctions  of  the  five  declensions  of  Latin 
nouns  have  been  entirely  lost.  The  Spanish  substan- 
tive, though  often  the  same  in  form  as  the  Latin  abla- 
tive, is  generally  regarded  as  formed  from  the  accusa- 
tive, which  was  undoubtedly  the  early  representative  of 
the  oblique  cases  in  each  declension.  The  final  m  was 
uniformly  dropped,  and  the  preceding  vowel,  though 
sometimes  retained,  was  frequently  changed  or  dropped. 

Ex.  GLORIAM,  gloria ;  TEMPLUM,  templo;  PATEEM,  padre; 
SERMONEM,  sermon  ;  CRIATOREM,  criador ;  VERSUM,  verso  ; 
DIEM,  dia. 

u  became  o  uniformly,  except  in  espiritu  and  tribu. 


18  PLURAL    OF    NOUNS. 

The  Latin  nominative  has  been  retained  in  a  few  pro- 
per names,  as  Carlos,  Dios. 

The  plural  is  often  the  same  in  form  as  the  Latin 
accusative  plural.  Ex.  Libros,  plumas,  flores. 

NOTE. — As  a  Spanish  word  cannot  end  with  any  other 
consonant  than  d,  I,  n,  r,  ,s,  ,T,  z,  whenever,  by  the  drop- 
ping of  the  Latin  termination,  some  other  consonant  is 
brought  to  the  end  of  a  word,  it  must  necessarily  be 
changed.  Ex.  Fraternitatem,  f rater  nidad,  pacem,  paz, 
regem,  rey.  T,  of  the  penult,  is  retained  in  amistad,  difi- 
cultad,  facuUad,  lealtad,  lilertad,  majest-ad  and  voluntad. 

15.     FORMATION  or  THE  PLURAL  or  NOUNS. 
(Formation  del  Plural  de  los  N&mbres). 

The  plural  of  substantives  is  formed  according  to  the 
following  general  rules  : 

1.  All  nouns  which  end  in  a  vowel  form  the  plural 
by  adding  s.     Ex.     carta,  letter  ;  cartas,  letters ;  hombre, 
man  ;    hombres,  men. 

Exc.  Nouns  ending  in  an  accented  d  or  u  form  the 
plural  by  adding  es.  Ex.^  bajd^ pasha,  bajdes ;  aleli, 
gilliflowers,  alelics ;  biricu,  sword-belt,  biricues.  But  ma- 
ma, papa,  sofa,  cafe,  bisturi,  maravedi,  zaquizami,  follow 
the  rule. 

2.  All  nouns  which  end  in  y,  or  in  a  consonant,  form 
the   plural   by  adding  es.     Ex.     ley,  law  ;   leyes,  laws  ; 
fllor,   flower  ;  flores,  flowers  ;    ciudad,   city  ;    ciudades, 
cities. 

Exc.  1.  Nouns  ending  in  z  commonly  change  the  z 
to  c  before  adding  es.  Ex.  lapiz,  pencil ;  lapices  ;  voz, 
voice  ;  voces. 

Exc.  2.  Patronymics  ending  in  z,  and  all  words  of 
two  or  more  syllables  ending  in  s  (the  last  syllable  being 


PLURAL    OF    NOUNS. 

~~  --.^  ~ 

unaccented)  remain  unchanged  in  the  pluralr 

Nunez,  Los  Martinez ;  lunes,  Monday;  los  lunes,  Mondays; 

analisis,  analysis  ;  las  analisis,  analyses. 

REM. — The  following  are  irregular  :  val,  valley,  valles  ; 
Lordfc  (English),  Lores,  Lords. 

NOTE  1. — Some  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural. 
Ex.  bofes,  lungs  ;  preces,  prayers  ;  viveres,  provisions. 

NOTE  2. — Some-  nouns  have  a  different  signification 
in  the  plural.  Ex.  tenaza  (fort),  tenaille  ;  tenazas, 
tongs  ;  modal,  fashionable  ;  modules,  manners. 

NOTE  3. — Some  nouns  have  a  double  signification  in 
the  plural.  Ex.  mano,  hand  ;  manos,  hands,  or  handi- 
craft ;  hijo,  son  ;  Ai/ox,  sons,  children,  (male  and  female). 

NOTE  4. — The  following  expressions  are  always  plural 
in  Spanish  :  Buenos  dias,  good  morning  ;  buenas  tardes, 
good  evening  ;  buenas  noches,  good  night. 

16.     PLURAL  OF  COMPOUND  NOUNS. 

(  Plural  de  los  Nombres  Compuestos) . 

In  most  compound  nouns  the  latter  component  only 
takes  the  plural  sign.  Ex.  Vanagloria,  boasting,  van- 
aglorlas. 

In  the  following  compounds  both  components  receive 
the  plural  sign  :  casamata,  casemate  ;  gentilhombre,  no- 
bleman ;  ricohome  (-or  ricohombre),  grandee.  The  plu- 
ral of  hidalgo,  (hijo  de  alguno],  is  hijosdalgo. 

17.       AUGMENTATIVES     AND    DIMINUTIVES. 

(Aumentativos   y  Diminutivos) . 

The  Spanish  language  is  quite  rich  in  derivative  nouns, 
which  serve  to  augment  or  diminish  the  signification  of 
their  primitives  not  only  in  regard  to  size  and  impor- 
tance, but  also  in  regard  to  dignity,  esteem,  value,  &c. 


20  AUGMENTATFVES  AND  DIMINUTIVES. 

1.  Augmentatives  are  formed  by  changing  the  final 
vowel  of  the  primitive  into  azo,  on.  ote,  or  acho,  ackon, 
arron,  for  masculine,  and  aza,  ona,  ota,  &c.,  for  feminine 
nouns.  Ex.  hombre,  man  ;  homhrazo,  hombron,  a  tall, 
large  man  ;  hombracho,  a  short,  square,  thick  man  ; 
hombrachon,  a  tall,  square,  thick  man  ;  mujer,  woman  ; 
mujeraza,  mujerona.  a  tall,  large  woman. 

NOTE. — The  ending  azo,  sometimes  expresses  the  effect 
of  the  primitive.  fusif,  musket  ;  ftiKilazo,  musket-shot. 
Ex.  martillo,  hammer  ;  martillazo,  blow  struck  with  a 
hammer. 

2  Diminutives  are  formed  by  changing  the  final 
vowel  of  the  primitive  into  ico,  if/o,  ito,  uelo,  for  mascu- 
line, and  ica,  ilia,  ita,  uela,  for  feminine  nouns.  Ex. 
hermano,  brother ;  hermanito,  dear  little  brother  ;  perro, 
dog  ;  perrico,  little  dog  ;  re//,  king  ;  reyecillo,  reyezuc'o, 
petty  king  ;  mesa,  table  ;  mexica,  little  table  ;  mexila., 
pretty  little  table  ;  mesilla,  mesuela,  poor  little  table. 

NOTE  1.  The  termination  ico,  denotes  diminution 
simply,  ito  with  endearment,  i//o  sometimes,  and  uelo  al- 
ways, with  contempt  and  disgust. 

NOTE  2. — Sometimes  c,  or  z,  ec,  or  ez,  are  prefixed  to 
these  terminations,  particularly  when  the  primitive  is  a 
monosyllable,  or  ends  in  e,  er,  or,  on,  or  y.  Ex.  pan,  a 
loaf  ;  panecico,  a  small  loaf,  a  roll  ;  hombre,  hombrecillo, 
hombrezuelo. 

NOTE  3. — These  derivatives  are  sometimes  formed 
with  other  terminations.  Ex.  chico,  little  boy  ;  chiqui- 
tin,  dear  little  boy  ;  chiquitina,  dear  little  girl.  They  may 
also  be  formed  from  adjectives,  participles  and  adverbs. 
The  true  signification,  (whether  of  esteem,  pity  or  con- 
tempt), in  many  instances,  can  only  be  determined  by 
the  nature  of  the  sentence,  or  the  tone  and  manner  of 
the  speaker. 

OBS. — Some  short  Latin  words  expressing  an  impor- 
tant idea,  or  a  strong  emotion,  have  been  lengthened  in 


ADJECTIVES.  21 

Spanish,  that  the  outward  form  may  correspond  to  the 
signification.  Ex.  COR,  corazon,  heart  ;  SPES,  experanza, 
hope. 

18.     ADJECTIVES.     (Adjectwos}. 

Adjectives  are  inflected  to  mark  gender  and  number, 
to  agree  with  the  nouns  which  they  qualify. 

1.  Those  ending  in  o,  (with  the  few  in  ete  and  ote*), 
change  the  final  vowel  into  o,,  when  joined  to  a  femi- 
nine noun.     Ex.      Un  paix  hermoso,  a  beautiful  country  ; 
una  pintara.  hermosa,  a  beautiful  picture. 

2.  All  other  adjectives  have  only  one  termination  for 
both  genders.     Ex.      Un  hombre  grave,  a  serious  man  ; 
una  materia  grave,  a  serious  matter. 

Exc.  Adjectives  denoting  nationality,  and  those  end- 
ing in  an  or  on  take  a  feminine  termination  in  a.  Ex. 
Espanol,  Expanola,  Spanish  ;  ingles,  inglesa,  English  ; 
holgazan,  holgazana,  idle. 

3.  The  plural  of  adjectives  is  formed  by  adding  s,  or 
ex,  according  to  the  rules  for  the  formation  of  the  plu- 
ral  of  nouns.     Ex.     bueno,   buenos,  good  ;  feliz,  fehces, 
happy  ;  baladi,  baladies,  mean. 

NOTE  1.- — The  adjectives  alguno,  ninguno,  bueno,  malo, 
uno,  primer  ot  tercero,  and  postrero,  lose  the  final 
vowel  ;  ciento,  grande  and  santo  lose  the  final  syllable  of 
the  singular  number,  when  they  precede  a  masculine 
noun.  Ex.  algan  hombre,  any  man  ;  ningun  cuidado, 
no  care  ;  buen  libro,  good  book  ;  mal  negocio,  bad  busi- 
ness ;  un  soblado,  one  soldier  ;  primer  capitulo,  first 
chapter  ;  tercer  panto,  third  point  ;  den  caballos,  a  hun- 
dred horses  ;  gran  rey,  great  king  ;  San  Pablo,  Saint 
Paul. 

NOTE  2. — Grande  also  loses  the  final  syllable  before  a 
feminine  noun  when  it  signifies  a  merit  or  quality.  Ex. 
gran  reina,  a  great  queen.  If,  however,  the  substantive 


22  COMPARISON. 

begins  with  a  vowel,  grande  does  not  lose  the  final  syl- 
lable. Ex.  grande  amigo,  great  friend  ;  grande  alma, 
great  soul. 

NOTE  3. — Santo  is  used  without  abbreviation  before 
the  words  Angel,  Christo,  Domingo,  el  Padre,  Tomua, 
Tome,  and  Tor H do.  EXCEPT.  La  isla  de  San  Tomds. 

OBS.  1. — Adjectives  ending  in  o,  a,  are  derived  from 
Latin  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions. 
Ex.  Bueno-a,  BOXUM-AM  ;  It.  buono-a  ;  Fr.  bon-ne. 

2.  Those  in  e  are  formed  from  Latin  adjectives  of 
the  third  declension,  often  with  a  syncopation  of  the 
penultimate  vowel.  Ex.  Trisfe,  TRISTEM  ;  It.  tristo-a. 
Fr.  triste.  Amablc,  AMABILEM  ;  It.  amabile ;  Fr.  aim  able. 

8.  Those  ending  in  a  consonant  are  mostly  derived 
from  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  by  dropping  M 
with  the  preceding  vowel.  (See  14.  Obs.)  Ex.  Mortal, 
MOHTALEM  ;  It,  morta'e  ;  Fr.  mortel.  Comun,  COMMUNEM  ; 
It.  commie  ;  Fr.  comman.  Feliz,  FELICEM  ;  It.  felice. 

4.  A  few  adjectives  ending  in  a  are  derived  from  the 
names  of  nations,  and  a  few  in  /  are  of  Arabic  origin. 
Ex.  Persa,  Persian  ;  turqui,  deep  blue. 

19.     COMPARISON.     (Comparacion). 

There  are  three  kinds  of  comparison,  which  may  re- 
fer either  to  quality  or  quantity. 

1.  Comparisons  of  equality  are  expressed  by  tan, 
TANTUM,  as  or  so,  before,  and  cmno,  QUO  MODO,  as,  after 
the  adjective  when  referring  to  quality  ;  and  by  tan  to,  as 
many,  as  much,  como,  cuanto,  QUANTAM,  as,  after  the 
noun  when  referring  to  quantity.  Ex.  Juan  es  tan 
estadioso  como  su  hermana  ;  John  is  as  studious  as  his 
sister.  El  Americano  tiene  tantydinero  como  el  France* ; 
The  American  has  as  much  money  as  the  Frenchman. 
Tiene  tanta  hacienda  cuanta  tcnia  su  padre  ;  He  has  as 
much  property  as  his  father  had. 


COMPARISON.  23 

NOTE. — Cuanto  is  generally  used  instead  of  como 
when  followed  by  a  verb.  As  an  adjective,  it  must,  like 
tanto,  agree  with  the  noun  in  gender  and  number. 

2.  Comparisons  of  inferiority  are  expressed  by  me- 
nos, MINUS,  less  ;   que,  QUAM,  than.     Ex.     Pedro  ess  menos 
dodo  que  Pablo  ;  Peter  is  less  learned  than  Paul. 

3.  Comparisons  of  superiority  are  expressed  by  max, 
MAGIS,   more  ;  que,  QUAM,  (and   sometimes   de),  DE  than. 
Ex.     El  so!  ex  mas  brillante  que  la  I  ana,  the  sun  is  more 
brilliant  than  the  moon.     Es  mas  rico  de  lo  que  parece,  he 
is  richer  than  he  seems  (to  be). 

NOTE.  Before  numeral  adjectives  de,  DE  is  used  in 
affirmative,  and  que,  in  negative  comparisons.  Tiene 
mas  de  vemte  casas,  he  has  more  than  twenty  houses.  No 
tiene  mas  que  diez  caballos,  he  has  not  more  than  ten 
horses. 

OBS.  The  system  of  comparison  by  means  of  the  par- 
ticles, was  introduced  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  the 
terminations  IOE,  ISSIMUS,  by  which  comparison  had  been 
expressed  in  Latin.  The  old  synthetic  forms  have  been 
preserved  in  a  few  words  which  are  now  considered  as 
exceptions,  and  are  said  to  be  compared  irregularly. 
The  sister  languages  have  adopted  the  same  system. 

Comparison  of  Superiority. 

mas,     MAGIS  ;         PLUS  ;        It.  piu ;         Fr.  plus,     more. 
que,  de,  QUAM,  DE  ;  QUAM,  DE  ;  che,  di ;  que,       than. 

Comparison  of  Inferiority. 

menos,   MINUS;  meno ;  moins,    less. 

que,  de,    QUAM,  DE  ;  che  ;  que,      than. 

Comparison  of  Equality. 

tan,  TANTUM  (ALIUD  sic),  tanto,  (aussi),     as. 

cuanto,  (como),  QUANTUM,  (QUO  MODO),  quanto,  que,         as. 


24  SUPERLATIVES. 

20.      SUPERLATIVES.      (Superlatives.) 

As  the  quality  may  be  expressed  in  the  highest  degree 
with  comparison,  or  in  a  high  degree  without  compari- 
son, there  are  said  to  be  two  kinds  of  superlatives. 

1.  The  superlative  relative  is  formed  by  prefixing  the 
article  el,  la,  &c.,  to  the  comparative  of  inferiority  or    su- 
periority, as  in  Italian,  and  French.     Ex.     Barcelona   es 
la  ciudad  mas  comercial  de    Expafia.     Barcelona  is  the 
most  commercial  city  in  Spain.     Socrates  era  el  mas  docto 
y  el  mas  virtuoso  delos  Griegos.     Socrates   was  the  most 
learned  and  the  most  virtuous  of  the  Greeks. 

2.  The  superlative  absolute  is  formed  by  prefixing  to 
the  adjective  the   adverb    may,    (contraction   of   macho, 
MULTUM  ;   It.  multo,  Fr.  tret,   TRANS),   very,  most,    or   by 
adding  the  terminations  i$imo-a,  &c. ;  (ISSIMUM-AM  ;  It. 
issimo-a)  to   the  adjective   which    then  drops  its  final 
vowel.     Ex.     EsmuybaenOjik  is  very  good  ;  Ella  es  muy 
hermosa,  she  is  most  beautiful  ;  Esta  leccion  esfacilisima, 
this  lesson  is  very  easy  ;  Es  doctisimo,  he  is  very  learned. 

NOTE  1. — Adjectives  ending  in  io  drop  both  vowels 
before  isimo.  Ex.  amplio,  amplisimo  ;  but  agrio,  sour  ; 
frio,  cold  ;  and  pio,  pious,  conform  to  the  rule — agrio, 
agriisimo  &c. 

NOTE  2. — The  following  terminations  meet  with  eu- 
phonic change. 

Ble  becomes   W,    as      terrible      terrible,      terribilisimo. 
Co  qa    as      rico  rich,  riquisimo. 

Go  gu    as      largo          large,          larguisimo. 

Z  c      as     feliz          happy,       felicisimo. 

lente  and  i'erlo  drop  the  i,  as  ardiente  ardent,  ardentisimo; 
cierto,  certain,  certisimo. 


IRREGULAR  COMPARISON.  25 

3. — The  following  adjectives  form    the  superla- 
tive absolute    irregularly,    retaining  the     Latin  form : 

Acre,  sharp,  acerrimo  ;  amigo,  friendly,  amidsimo ;  aspero, 
rough,  a&perrimo  (or  axpermmo)  ;  benejico,  beneficent,  beneficen- 
tixitno  ;  benevolo,  benevolent,  benevolentisimo  ;  bueno,  good,  bonifi- 
imo  ;  celeh'e,  celebrated,  celeberimo  ;  fal,  faithful,  fedelisimo  ; 
fuerte,  strong,  fortisimo  ;  intf-gro,  just,  honest,  integerrimo  ;  libre, 
free,  liberrimo  ;  mngnific't.  magnificent,  magnificentisimo  ; 
misero,  miserable,  miserrimo  ;  munifico,  munificent,  munificen- 
tisimo  ;  noble,  noble,  nobilisimo ;  nutw,  new,  nomsimo  ;  pobre, 
poor,  pauperimo  ;  sagrado  or  mgro,  sacred,  sacratisimo  ;  salubre, 
healthy,  nal-uberrimo  ;  sabio,  wise,  sapientisimo. 

21.     IRREGULAR  COMPARISON.     (Comparacion  Irregular). 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  by  a  change 
of  form,  similar  to  the  Latin  from  which  they  are  de- 
rived, though  they  also  admit  of  comparison  according 
to  the  previous  rules. 

Bueno       BONUM  It.  buono      Fr.  bon  good 

mejor        MELIOREM  migliore          meilleur  better 

optiino      OPTIMUM  ottimo  (le  meilleur)  best 

malo          MALUM  (cattivo  CAPTIVUM)  mauvais         bad 

peor          PEJOREM  peggiore          pire  worse 

pesimo     PESSIMUM  pessimo  (le  pire)  worst 

'pequeno  (PARVUM)  piccolo  (PUNCTDLUM)  petit  (PIC)  small 
menor  MINOREM  minore  moindre  smaller 

minimo     MINIMUM  minimo  (le  moindre)     smallest 

grande     (MAGNUM)  GRAN  DEM  grande     grand  great 

mayor  MAJOREM  maggiore  majeur  (plus  grand)  greater 
maximo  MAXIMUM  massimo  inaxime  (le  plus  grand)  greatest 

alto   (SUPERUM)  ALTUM       alto  haut  high 

superior  SUPERIOREM  superiore  superieur  (plus  haut)  higher 
supremo  SUPREMUM  supremo  supreme  (le  plus  haut)  highest 

4 


26 


NUMERAL    ADJECTIVES. 


bajo  (INFERUM)  BASSUS  It.  basso      Fr.  has 


low 


inferior      INFERIOREM 
infimo       INFIMUM 

inferiore  inferieur  (plus  has)  lower 
infimo     inmne  (le  plus  has)   lowest 

raucho       MULTUM 
mas            (PLUS)  MAGIS 
(lo  mas)     (PLUUIMUM) 

molto 

(Pi") 
(il  piu) 

(beaucoup) 
(plus) 
(le  plus) 

much 
more 
most 

poco           PAUCUM 
menos         MINUS 

poco 
meno 

pen 
moins 

little 

less 

(lo  menos)  MINIME 

(il  meno) 

(le  moins) 

least 

REM.  Macho  find. poco  in  the  comparative  and  superla- 
tive are  used  both  as  adjectives  and  adverbs  in  Spanish, 
though  as  adverbs  only  in  French  and  Italian. 

22.     NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES.     (Adjetivos  Numerate*). 
I.     Cardinals.     (Gardinales). 


1  uno,  a 

UN  US,  A             It. 

uno,  a    F.  un,  une 

2  dos 

DUO 

due              deux 

3  tres 

TRES 

tre                trois 

4  cuatro 

(iUATTUOK 

<j[uattro        quatre 

5  cm  co 

QUINQUE 

cinque          cinq 

C  seis 

SEX 

sei                 six 

7  siete 

SEPTEM 

sette            sept 

8  ocho 

OCTO 

otto               huit 

9  nueve 

NOVEM 

nove             neuf 

10  diez 

DECEM 

dieci              dix 

11  once 

UNDECIM 

undici           onze 

12  doce 

DUODECIM 

dpdici           douze 

13  trece 

TREDECIM 

tredici          treize 

14  catorce 

QUATTUORDECI.M 

quattordici  quatorze 

15  quince 

QUINDECIM 

quindici      quinze 

16  diez  y  seis 

SEDECIM 

sedici           seize 

17  diez  y  siete 

SEPTENDECIM 

diciassette  dix-sept 

18  diez  y  ocho 

OCTODP:CIM 

diciotto       dix-huit 

19  diez  y  nueve 

NOVEMDE'CIM 

diciannove  dix-neuf 

ORDINALS, 


27 


20  veinte 
21  veinte  y  uno 
22  veinte  y  dos 
30  treinta 

VIGINTI                It. 
VIGINTI  UN  US 
VIOINTI  DUO 
THIGINTA 

venti      F. 
ventuno 
ventidue 
trenta 

vingt 
vingt  et  un 
vingt-deux 
trente 

40  cuarenta 
50  cincuenta 
60  sesenta 

QUADHAGINTA 
QUINQUAGINTA 
SEXAGINTA 

quaranta 
cinquanta 
sessanta 

quarante 
cinquante 

soixante 

70  setenta 

SBPTUAGINTA 

settanta 

soixante  et  dix 

80  ochenta 
90  noventa 
100  ciento 

OCTOGINTA 
NONAGINTA 
CENTUM 

ottanta 
novanta 
cento 

quatre-vingts 
quatre-vingt-dix 
cent 

101  ciento  y  uno 
200  doscientos 
1000  mil 

CENTUM  UNUS 
DUCENTI 
MILLH 

ccntuno 
dugento 
mille 

cent  un 
deux  cents 
mille 

NOTE  1. — The  cardinal  numbers  are  all  invariable,  ex- 
cept uno,  millon,  an:l  the  compounds  of  ciento.  The 
latter  drops  the  final  syllable  when  it  immediately  pre- 
cedes the  noun  and  uno  loses  the  final  vowel  before  mas- 
culine nouns.  Ex.  Ticne  tin  baen  chaleco  y  una  casaca, 
lie  has  one  good  vest  and  one  coat  ;  Tengo  doscientos 
libros  y  quinientas  phimax,  I  have  two  hundred  books 
and  five  hundred  pens  ;  Glen  hom'jres  y  den  mujeres  es- 
tuvieron  en  la  igjesia,  one  hundred  men  and  one  hundred 
women  were  in  the  church. 

NOTE  2. — The  order  of  the  numerals  is  the  same  as 
in  English,  except  that  the  conjunction  must  always 
precede  the  last  number.  Ex.  Mil  ochocientos  setenta  y 
dos,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-two. 

II.     Ordinals.     (Ordinales). 


1st    primero,  primo 

(PRIMA.RIUS)  L'KI.MLTS  It.  prilllO 

F.  premier 

2nd    segaudo 

SEOUNDUS 

secoudo 

second 

3d      tercero,  tercio 

TEBTIUS 

terzo 

troisi&me 

4th    cnarto 

QUART  US 

quarto 

quatrierae 

5th    quinto 

QUINTUS 

quiu  to 

cinquieme 

6th    sexto 

SfiXTUS 

sesto 

sixieme 

7th    septimo 

SEPTIMUS 

settimo 

septieme 

8  tli    octavo 

OCTAVUS 

ottavo 

huitieme 

9tli    noveno,  (nono) 

NONUS 

riono 

neuvieine 

28  COLLECTIVES.  —  PARTITIVES. 

10th  d6cimo,  (cleceno)  DECIMUS  It.  decimo        F.  dixiime 

llth  und6cimo  UNDECIMUS  undecimo         onzieme 

12th  duodecimo  DUODECIMUS  duodecimo       douzi£me 

13th  decimo  tercio  TERTIUS  DECIMUS    decimo  terzo   treizieme 

14th  decirao  cuarto  DECIMUS  QUARTUS   decimo  quarto  quatorzieme 

15th  decimo  quinto  DECIMUS  QUINTUS    decimo  quiuto  quinzieine 

16th  d6cimo  sexto  DECIMUS  SKXTUS      decimo  sesto     seizieme 

17th  d6cimo  seprimo  DECIMUS  SEPTIMUS  decimo  settirno  dix-septteme- 

18th  decimo  octavo  DECIMUS  OCTAVUS  decimottavo      dix-huitieme 

19th  decimo  nono  DECIMUS  NOXUS       decimo  nono     dix-neuvieme 

20th  vig6simo  VICESIMUS  vigesimo          vingtieme  ' 

21st  vigesimo  primo  VICESIMUS  PRIMUS  vigesimo  primo  vingt  etunieme 

NOTE  1. — The  ordinal  numbers  are  inflected  and  used 
like  adjectives. 

NOTE  2. — Primo  and  tercio  are  only  used  in  connec- 
tion with  another  ordinal,  as  vige'simo  primo  (tercio), 
twenty-first  (third). 

III.  Collectives.     (Colectivos). 

The  collective  numbers  are  properly  nouns  derived 
from  the  cardinals.  Ex. 

una  decena,  DECEM,  una  dccina,  une  dizaine,  half  a  score  ; 
una  docena,  DUODECIM,  una  dozzina,  une  douzaine,  a  dozen  ; 
una  veintena,  VIGIXTI,  una  vetitina.  tine  vingt aine,  a  score. 

IV.  Partitives.     (Partitives). 

With  the  exception  of  medio-a,  mitad,  Lat.  MEDIATA- 
TEM,  It.  meid,  Fr.  moili*,  half,  the  partitive  numbers  are 
derived  from  the  ordinals.  Ex.  J,  el  tercero  or  la  ter- 
cera  parte,  TERTIUS,  It.  il  terzo,  Fr.  le  tiers  ;  J,  el  cuarto 
or  la  cuarta  parte,  QUARTUS,  il  quarto,  le  quart. 

NOTE. — The  fractional  numbers  from  1-10  to  1-100, 
are  formed  by  adding  avo  to  the  cardinal  numbers  with 
certain  euphonic  changes.  Ex.  2-11,  dns  onzavos  ; 
1-18,  un  diez  y  ochavv  ;  1-20,  un  veintaro ;  -t:-j}g;  un 
treintiunavo.  Beyond  1-200  and  generally  in  common 
language  the  ordinals  are  used.  Ex.  207-3259,  doscientos 
y  siete  ires  mileximos  ducenfesimos  quincuagesimos  nonos. 


PROPORTIONALS. PRONOUNS.  29 

V.     Proportionals.     (Proportionates). 

The  proportional  or  multiplicative  numbers  are  used 
to  indicate  how  many  times  a  number  is  repeated.  Ex. 
Duplo-a,  doble,  DUPLUM,  DUPLICEM,  It.  doppio,  Fr.  double, 
double  ;  trip'e,  triph-a,  TRIPLICEM,  TRIPLUM,  triplo,  Fr. 
triple,  triple  ;  caadruph,  QUADRUPLUM,  quadruplo,  quadru- 
ple, quadruple. 

NOTE. — In  the  same  manner  are  formed  in  each  lan- 
guage quintuple,  sextuple,  septuple,  octuple,  decuple,  centu- 
p'e.  Others  are  expressed  by  de  with  the  cardinals  and 
veces,  It.  uolta,  Fr.fois,  folio  wed  by  tanto,  or  a  compara- 
tive. Ex.  Doce  veces  tanto,  twelve  times  as  much, 
(twelve-fold)  ;  Es  de  nueve  veces  mayor,  it  is  nine-fold 
greater. 

'^3.     PRONOUNS.      (Pronombres). 

There  are  six  classes  of  pronouns,  personal  (per- 
sonales],  possessive  (posesivos),  demonstrative  (demon- 
stratives], relative  (relativos),  interrogative  (interrogati- 
vos),  and  indefinite  (indefinidox). 

I.     The  Personal  Pronouns. 

They  are  inflected  as  in  the  following  table.  (The 
ablative  is  given  with  the  genitive,  since  the  pronoun 
has  always  the  same  form  in  each,  though  the  preposi- 
tion varies  according  to  the  idea  expressed). 

(1)     First  Person.      (Primera  Persona). 

Nom.     Yo               EGO  It.  lo              Fr.  Je,  moi       I 

G-  &  A.  de  mi        (MEI)  ME  di  rne               de  moi        of  me 

Dat.       d  mi,  me  (MIIII)  ME  a  me,  mi          a  moi,  me  to  me 

Ace.       me,  a  mi    ME  me,  mi            me               me 

Nom.     nosotros-as,  (nos)  NOS  ALT  EROS   noi  nons  we 

G  &  A.  de- nosotros-as     (NOSTRUM)  NOS  de  noi     de  nous  of  us 

Dat.       a  nosotros-as,  nos  (NOBIS)  NOS     a  noi,  ci  a  nous  to  us 

Ace,       a  nosotros-as,  nos  NOS  noi,  ci     nous  us 


30  PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 

(2)     Second  Person.     (Segunda  Persona). 


N&V.  tu 

TU 

tu 

tu,  toi 

thou 

G  &  A.  de  ti 

(TUI)  TE- 

dite 

de  toi 

of  thee 

Dat.      a  ti,  te 

(TIBI)  TE 

a  te,  ti 

a  toi,  te 

to  thee 

Ace.      a  ti,  te 

TE 

te,  ti 

te 

thee 

N&V.  vosotros-as,  (vos)  vos  ALTEROS   voi          vous      you 
G  &  A.  de  vosotros-as      (VKSTRUM)  vos  di  voi     de  vous  of  you 
Dat.       ti  vosotros-as,  os  (VOBIS)  vos      a  voi,  vi  a  vous  to  you 
Ace.       a  vosotros-as,  os     vos  voi,  vi,   vous       you 

(3)      (a)    Third  Person,  Masculine. 

( Tcrcera  Persona  Mdsculina  ) 

Nom.     61  ILLE  egli,  ei,  e'  il,  lui  he 

G&  A.  de  el     (ILLIUS)  ILLI  HUIC  di  lui  de  lui  of  him 

Dat.       a  el,  le  (ILLI)  ILLI  HUIC   a  lui,  gli  a  lui,  lui  to  him 

Ace.       a  el,  le,  lo   ILLUM  lui,  il,  lo  le  him 

Nom.     ellos  ILLI  eglino,  egli  e'  ils,  eux  they 

G  &  A.  de  ellos  (ILL o  RUM)  ILLOS  di  loro  d'eux  of  them 
Dat.  a  ellos,  les  (ILLIS)  ILLOS  a  loro,  gli  a  eux  to  them 
Ace.  a  ellos,  los  ILLOS  loro,  li  les  them 

(3.)      (h)     Third  Person,  Feminine.     (Femenina). 

Nom.     ella  ILLA  ella  elle          she 

G.  &  A.  de  ella     (ILLIUS)  ILLAM  di  lei  d'elle       of  her 

Dat.       ti  ella,  le  (ILLI)  ILLAM  a  lei,  le  &  elle,  lui  to  her 

Ace.       a  ella,  la    ILLAM  lei,  la  la  her 

Nom.  ellas  ILLAE  elleno  elles  they 

G  &  A.  de  ellas  (ILLARUM)  ILLAS  di  loro  d'elles  of  them 

Dat.  a  ellas,  les  (ILLIS)  ILLAS      a  loro,  loro  a  elles  to  them 

Ace.  a  ellas,  las  ILLAS  loro.  le         les  them 

NOTE — The  Spanish  has  a  nauber  form,  cllo,  de  ello, 
a  cllo,  lo,  (ILLUD)  it,  used  only  in  the  singular  number. 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  31 

3.     (c)     Reflective.     (Eeflcxivo}. 

Se,  (SE  ;  It.  si,  F.  se)  himself,  herself,  itself,  them- 
selves, is  invariable  for  gender  or  number,  but  becomes 
si  after  a  preposition  and  when  joined  with  mismo,  as 
di  si,  a  si,  &c.,  si  mismo. 

NOTE  1. — The  second  forms  of  the  dative  and  accusa- 
tive are  called  conjunctive  pronouns  because  they  are 
never  used  with  prepositions,  but  are  always  employed 
with  verbs  that  govern  them  and  with  which  t  liey  often 
form  a  single  word.  Ex.  Diamelo,  he  gave  it  to  me  ; 
amemos'e,  let  us  love  him  ;  amandolos,  loving  them. 

NOTE  2. — Conmigo,  contigo,  consigo  are  used  instead 
of  the  forms  con  mi,  con  ti,  con  si,  with  me,  with  thee, 
&c. 

NOTE  3. — The  final  s  or  d  of  the  verb  is  dropped  be- 
fore 77,08  or  os.  Ex.  amamonos,  (amamosnos)  we  loved 
each  other,  amaos,  (amados)  love  one  another.  EXCEP. 
idos,  go  away. 

NOTE  4. — Lo  is  used  instead  of  ello  in  the  middle  of  a 
phrase.  Ex.  Ello  parece  dificil,  mas  no  lo  es ;  it  ap- 
pears to  be  difficult,  but  it  is  not. 

NOTE  5. — Whenever  two  conjunctive  pronouns,  the 
dative  and  accusative  of  the  third  person,  (mascu- 
line or  feminine,  singular  or  plural),  occur  with  the 
same  verb,  the  dative  Je,  les,  is  always  changed  to  se  for 
euphony.  Ex.  Se,  la,  (lo)  prometio,  he  promised  it  to 
him,  (her,  them).  Sa,  las,  (/os)  dare,  I  will  give  them 
-to  him,  (her,  them).  Prometiendoselo,  (la,  los,  las),  pro- 
mising it  (them)  to  him,  (her,  them). 

NOTE-  6. — Sometimes  the  disjunctive  pronoun  or  the 
substantive  is  added  for  emphasis.  Ex.  se  lo  prometi 
d  ella,  (d  mi  hermana),  I  promised  it  to  her  (to  my  sis- 
ter). 

NOTE  7. — Mismo-a,  (METIPSIMTJM  ;  It.  stesso,  ISTUM  IP- 
SUM  ;  Fr.  memc),  same,  self,  may  be  added  to  any  of  the 
personal  pronouns  to  express  emphasis  or  discrimina- 
tion. Ex.  ?/o  mismo,  I  myself  ;  ella  misma,  she  herself. 


32 


POSSESSIVE    PRONOUNS. 


NOTE  8. — La  and  lo  are  sometimes  used  for  le,  and  les 
for  los.  Ex.  La  di  dos  duros,  I  gave  her  two  dollars  ; 
Les  vere  maftana,  I  will  see  them  to-morrow. 

NOTE  9. — In  early  writers  the  final  r  of  the  infinitive 
before  I  is  assimilated,  and  the  d  of  the  imperative 
transposed.  Ex.  Tomalla  (tomarla),  to  take  her  ;  de- 
cilde  (decidle),  tell  it. 

II.  The  Possessive  Pronouns  are  inflected  to  mark 
gender  and  number,  but  case  is  indicated  by  the  article, 
or  by  the  nouns  to  which  they  are  joined.  They  are 
six  in  number,  and  are  used  both  adjectively  and  sub- 
stantively,  having  respectively  the  significations,  my, 
mine  ;  thy,  thine  ;  his,  her,  hers,  its  ;  our,  ours  ;  your, 
yours  ;  their,  theirs. 


Singular,  m.  f. 

Latin. 

Italian. 

French. 

1    inio  a 

MKUM 

il  (la)  mio  (a) 

mon,  in  a 

le  (la)  mien  (ne) 

2    tuyo-a 

TUtTM 

il  (la)  tuo  (a) 

ton,  ta 

le  (la)  tien  (ne) 

3    suyo-a 

SUUM 

il  (la)  suo  (a) 

son,  sa 

le  (la)  sien  (ue) 

4    nuestro-a 

NOSTRUM 

il  (la)  nostro  (a) 

notre 

le  (la)  notre 

5    vuestro-a 

VOSTRUM 

il  (la)  vostro  (A) 

votre 

le  (la)  votre 

6    suyo-a 

SUUM 

il  (la)  loro 

leur 

le  (la)  leur 

Plural,    in.    f. 

1    mios-as 

MEOS 

i  (le)  miei  (mie) 

mes 

les  miens-ennes 

2    tnyos-as 

TUOS 

i  (le)  tuoi  (tue) 

tes 

les  tiens,  tieunes 

3    suyos-as 

SUOS 

i  (le)  suoi  (sue) 

ses 

les  siens,  siennes 

4    nuestros-as 

NOSTROS 

i  (le)  nostri  (e) 

nos 

les  notres 

5    vuestros-as 

VOSTROS 

i  (le)  vostri  (e) 

vos 

les  votres 

6    suyos-as 

SUOS 

i  (le)  loro 

leurs 

les  leurs 

NOTE  1. — When  used  adjectively  and  without  emphasis 
all,  except  nuestro  and  vuvstro,  drop  the  final  syllable, 
but  retain  8  in  the  plural.  Ex.  mi  libro,  my  book  ;  st/«s 
plamas,  his  [their]  pens  ;  nuestra  iglesia,  our  church. 

NOTE  2. — When  used  substantively  they  are  preceded 
by  the  definite  article,  and  agree  in  gender,  number  and 
case  with  the  noun  which  they  represent.  Ex.  Mi  ca- 
ballo  y  el  xayo,  my  horse  and  his  ;  vuestraplama  y  la  mia, 
your  pen  and  mine. 


DEMONSTRATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

NOTE  3. — If.  however,  the  pronoun  is  connec 
the  noun  by  the  verb  to  be,  the  article  is  omitted.     Ex. 
Em  carta  es  suya,  that  letter  is  his. 

III.  The  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  are  inflected  to 
mark  gender  and  number,  to  agree  with  the  nouns  which 
they  point  out  or  represent,  and  may  be  preceded  by 
the  prepositions  a,  de,  &c.  like  the  article. 

They  are  used'  both  adjectively  and  substantively, 
except  in  the  neuter  form,  which  is  only  used  substan- 
tively and  in  the  singular  number.  They  signify  this, 
that,  these,  those,  and  have  the  following  forms  : 

Sing.  m.f.  n.  Latin.  Italian.  French. 

este  a-o  ISTUM  (QUEM)  (ECCB)    questo-a  ce-t-tte 

ese-a-o  IPSUM  (QUID)  esso-a,  cotesto-a  ce-t-tte 

aquel-lla-o      ECCU'  ILLUM  (QUEM)     quello-a  cel-ui-lc 

Plural. 

estos-as  ISTOS  questi-e  ces 

esos-as  IPSOS  essi-e,  cotesti-e    ces 

aquellos-as      ECOU'  ILLOS  quelli-e        ceux,  celles 

HEM. — With  reference  to  the  speaker,  este  (this)  de- 
notes that  which  is  near ;  ese  (that)  something  mode- 
rately distant,  (or  near  the  person  addressed);  aquel 
(that)  something  remote,  (from  both  speaker  and  per- 
son addressed).  Ex.  Exta  obra,  que  leo,  tiene  cuatro 
tomos,  this  work,  that  I  am  reading,  has  four  volumes. 
Dame  ese  libro,  give  me  that  book.  Aquella  casa  es  muy 
hermosa,  that  house  is  very  beautiful.  Eso  es  verdad, 
that  is  true. 

NOTE  1.  Este  and  ese  are  often  combined  with  the  ad- 
jective otro-a  (other)  so  as  to  form  with  it  one  word,  as 
estotro-a,  &c.,  this  other,  esotro-a,  &c..  that  other.  Ex. 
Estapluma  es  de  plala,  esotra  es  de  oro,  this  is  a  silver 
pen,  that  other  one  is  gold. 

5 


34  EELATIYE   PRONOUNS. 


NOTE  2.  The  forms  QfffJSffa/fpd  aqvese  are  found  in- 
stead of  este  and'eseon  \^rks  written  before  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

IV.     The  Relative  Pronouns,  are  : 

cual  QUALEM     It.  quale     Fr.  qnel  who,  which 

cuyo  CTJJUS  (DE  UNDE)  qui          de  qui,(dont)  whose,  of  which 

que  QUOD  che  que  who,  which,  that 

quien  QUEM  chi  qui  who 

REM.  The  first  three  relate  to  both  persons  and 
things,  the  last  to  persons  only.  They  may  all  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  prepositions  a,  de,  &c.,  to  mark  the  rela- 
tions of  case. 

1.  Cual,  cuales,   is  inilected  with  the  definite  article 
(el,  la,  lo,  cual  ;  /as,  los,  cuafes),  except  when  it  expresses 
doubt  or   comparison.      Ex.     La  gramatica,   en   la  cual 
estudia,  es  mia,  the  grammar,  in  which  he  is  studying,  is 
mine.      Uno  de  estos  libros,  no  se  cual,  es  para  mi,  one  of 
these  books,  I  know  not  which,  is  for  me. 

2.  Gaijo  (-a  -os  -as)  is  used    without   the    article, 
and  agrees  with  the  following  noun  (not  with  the  ante- 
cedent).    Ex.     El   caballero,   cui/a   casa    V.    compro,    es 
amigo  mio,  the  gentleman,  whose  house  you  bought,  is 
my  friend.     El  padre,  a  cuyos  hijos  vimos,  es  rico,  the 
father  whose  children  we  saw,  is  rich. 

3.  Que  is  invariable.     Ex.     El  hombre,  que  habla,  no 
sabe  lo  que  dice,  the   man,   who  is    speaking,  does  not 
know  what  he  says.     Los  lihros  que  leo,  son  instructivos, 
the  books,  which  I  read,  are  instructive. 

4.  Quien,  quienes,  has  the  same  form  in  both  gen- 
ders, and  is  commonly  used  with  a  preposition,  (with- 
out the  article).     Ex.     El  hombre,  a  quien  debo  la  vida, 
es  viejo,  the  man  to  whom  I  owe  my  life  is  old.     Las 


INDEFINITE   PEONOUNS.  35 

mulieres  con  quienes  hablaban,  son  sus  hermanas,  the  wo- 
men with  whom  they  are  talking  are  their  sisters. 

NOTE  1. — Caanto  (QUANTUM,  It.  quanta,  Fr.  quand),  as 
the  correlative  of  tanto,  (TANTUM,  It.  tanto,  Fr.  tant),  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  has  sometimes  the  character  of 
a  relative  pronoun.  Ex.  (Tantos)  cuantos  lo  oyeron  $e 
escandalizaron,  as  many  as  heard  it  were  offended. 

NOTE  2. — Gual  and  qvJen,  with  quiera  (subj.  of  querer, 
to  wish  be  willing),  form  the  compounds  cualqvier(a), 
quienquiera,  cualesquier(a),  quienesquiera,  which  are 
generally  considered  indefinite  pronouns. 

V.  The  Interrogative  Prondfntjfs  are  the  same  in  form 
and  inflection  as  the  relative,  except  that  cual  does  not 
take  the  article.     They  are  generally  distinguished  from 
the  relative  by  the  accent.     Ex.     ^  Quien  habla  ?  who 
is  speaking  ?     ^  dial  de  estos  dos  libros  prefiere    Vd.  ? 
which  of  these  two  books  do  you  prefer  ?     $  Qae  quiere 
Vd.  f     what  do  you  wish  ?     %  Cuya  (or  de  quien)  es  esa 
bolza  ?   whose  purse  is  that  ? 

NOTE. — Que  is  followed  by  de  before  a  substantive  (or 
adjective  used  substantively).  Ex.  /  Qas  de  invidia 
se  ve  en  algunos  hombres  !  what  envy  is  seen  in  some 
men  !  ^  Que  kay  de  nuevo  ?  what  is  the  news  ? 

VI.  The  Indefinite  Pronouns,  according  to  the  Span- 
ish Academy,    are   alguien,  aigano,  nadie,  ninguno,  tal, 
uno,  se,  (when  equivalent  to  uno),  and  sometimes  cual 
and  quien,  but  most  grammarians  include  all  that  are 
given  in  the  following  table  : 


AlgO 

ALIQUOD 

It. 

Fr. 

some  thing 

Alguien 

ALIQUEM 

some  one 

Alguno 

ALIQUEM  UNUM 

alcuno 

aucun 

some  one 

Cada 

(QUEMQUE) 

(chaque) 

each,  every 

Cada  uno 

"        UNUM 

ciascuno 

chacun 

each  one 

Cualquiera 

(23.  IV.  N.  2.) 

qualunque 

quelconque 

whatever 

Fulano 

(=QUIDAM) 

from  Arabic 

f61an 

such  a  one 

Misrao 

MET  IPSUM 

medesirao 

meine 

same,  self 

Nada        (REM)  NATAM  (=NIHIL)  (niente) 

rien 

nothing 

36  VERBS. 

Nadie  (=NTEMO)  It.  nullo         Fr.  mil                    none,  nobody 

Ninguno  NE  IPSUM  UNUM  nessnno  (personne)         none,  no  one 

Otro  ALTERUM  altro  autre  other,  another 

Quienquiera  (23.  IV.  N.  2)  cliiunque  qniconque          whoever 

Se  SE  si  (on,  HOMINEM)  one 

Tal  TALEM  tale  tel                       such 

Todo  TOTUM  tutto  tout                    all,  every 

Uno  UNUM  uno  un                       one 

1.  Algo,  algaien,  nada,  nadie,  quienquiera,  and  se  are 
only  used  substantively,  and  are  invariable,  (except  that 
quienesquiera  is  rarely  found).    Algo  and  nada  refer  only 
to  things,  the  others  only  to  persons.     Ex.    Escribo  algo 
a  algaien,  I  am  writing  something  to  somebody.     Quien- 
quiera que  sea,  no  haJWa  nada  a  nadie,  whoever  he  may 
be,  he  says  nothing  to  nobody.     Se  dice,  they  say,  it  is 
said. 

2.  Gualqaiera  and  tal,  as  pronouns,  are  invariable,  as 
adjectives  they  take  the  plural  form,  (cualesquiera,  tales}. 
The  final  a  of  the  former  is  sometimes  lost  when  it  pre- 
cedes a  noun,  but  never  when  it  follows  or  is  used  alone. 
Ex.     Cualesqaiera  co.sas  qae  dig  an  de  mi,  whatever  things 
they  may  say  of  me.     Dame  cua'quier  libra  (un  libro 
caalqaiera)  que  guste  Vd.,  give  me  whatever  book  you 
please. 

3.  The  others,  used   both  adjectively  and  substan- 
tively are  inflected  like  adjectives,  except  cada,  which  is 
invariable.     Ex.     Recibe  alguna  cova,  afyunos  lo  saben,  he 
receives  something,  some  know  it. 

24.     VERBS.     ( Verbos). 

There  is  in  Spanish  the  same  general  classification 
of  verbs,  with  reference  to  their  meaning,  into  active 
(activos),  and  neuter  (neutros),  as  in  English.  They  are 
sometimes  classified  as  substantive  and  adjective  verbs. 
The  substantive  are  ser,  estar,  haber,  exister,  all  denoting 


CONJUGATION.  37 

existence.  All  other  verbs  are  adjectives,  because,  ex- 
istence being  supposed,  they  attribute  to  the  existence 
some  quality. 

1.  Active  verbs  may  have  three  forms,  active  (activa), 
passive  (pasiva),  and  reflective  or  pronominal  (reflexiva 
6  pronominal  e).     The   latter  form   is  called  reciprocal 
(reciproca),  when  two  or  more  subjects  act  reciprocally 
upon  one  another.     Ex.     La  madre  ama  a  los  niilos,  the 
mother  loves   the  children.     Los  ninos  son  amados  por 
la  madre,  the  children  are  loved  by  the  mother.     Los 
niilos  se  aman,    the  children   love   themselves  (or   one 
another). 

2.  Neuter  verbs  have  only  one  form,  but  many  verbs, 
which  are  neuter  in  English,  become  reflexive  in  Span- 
ish.    Ex.      Vivimos  en  los  Estados  Unidos,  we  live  in  the 
United  States.     Me  acuexto  a  las  diez  de  la  noche,  I  go  to 
bed  at  ten  o'clock  at  night.     Me  levanto  a  las  seis  de  la 
mafiana,  I  rise  at  six  in  the  morning. 

3.  Impersonal    or    unipersonal   verbs    (verbos    uni- 
perxonales),  are  used  as  in  English.     Those  which  ex- 
press the  operations  of  nature,  as  llueve,  it  rains  ;  nieva, 
it  snows,   &c.,   are  called  true  unipersonal  verbs,  and 
those  which  are  formed  from  other  verbs,  as  hay,  there 
is,  there  are,  saccede,  it  happens,  &c.,  are  called  improp- 
er unipersonal  verbs. 

25.     CONJUGATION.     (Conjugation), 

With  regard  to  their  form  verbs  are  divided  into  three 
conjugations,  distinguished  by  the  termination  of  the 
infinitive.  In  the  first  conjugation  it  is  ar,  ARE  ;  in  the 
second  er,  ERE,  ERE;  and  in  the  third  ir,  IRE.  The  vowel, 
which  precedes  the  final  r,  is  called  the  characteristic 
vowel,  and  the  preceding  letters  constitute  the  root, 


38  CONJUGATION. 

which  remains  unchanged  through  all  the  forms  of  con- 
jugation. 

KEM.  Mood  (modo],  tense  (tiempo),  number  and 
person  have  generally  the  same  use  and  signification  as 
in  English  (or  Latin),  except  that  the  subjunctive  mood 
has  the  same  number  of  tenses  as  the  indicative,  and 
the  imperfect  tense  of  the  subjunctive  has  three  forms 
ending  in  ese,  era,  and  ria.  The  first  is  always  imper- 
fect, the  second  may  be  either  imperfect  or  conditional, 
but  can  be  used  in  only  one  member  of  a  sentence, 
while  the  third  is  always  conditional,  like  the  conditional 
mode  in  French  and  Italian.  Ex.  Si  taviese  (or  ta- 
viera),  dinero  compraria  una  casa,  if  I  had  money  I  would 
buy  a  house.  Seriafeliz  si  el  estuviese  (or  estuviera)  aqui, 
I  should  be  happy  if  he  were  here.  Vaster  a  (or  valdria) 
mas  que  tu  quedases  en  casa,  it  wrould  be  better  that  you 
should  remain  in  the  house. 

OBS. — The  Latin  system  of  conjugation  has  undergone 
more  marked  changes  than  any  other  part  of  the  gram- 
mar. Some  forms  have  disappeared  entirely,  others 
have  been  remodeled,  while  some,  previously  unknown, 
have  been  introduced.  The  conjugations  have  been 
reclassitied  and  the  whole  fabric  decomposed  and  re- 
constructed. 

The  most  prominent  change  is  the  entire  disappear- 
ance of  the  passive  voice,  and,  in  its  place,  the  use  of 
the  auxiliaries  ser  and  estar  combined  with  the  past  par- 
ticiple of  the  verb.  The  transformation  was  wrought  at 
an  early  period  in  the  popular  Latin,  since  many  exam- 
ples are  found  in  manuscripts  of  the  sixth  century,  as 

SUM  AMATUS  for  AMOR  ;    HOC  VOLO    ESSE   DONATUM  for  DONABI. 

Deponent  verbs  also  lost  their  distinctive  character  and 
assumed  an  active  form,  as  ARBITEABE,  PARTIRE,  &c.,  in- 
stead Of  ARBITRARI,  PARTIRI,  &C. 

Next  in  importance  is  the  modification  of  the  tenses. 
Those  which  represent  the  action  as  completed,  instead 


CONJUGATION. 

of  being  indicated  by  terminations,  are  compoTsecT  of 
haber  and  the  past  participle.  This  result  is  due  to  a 
tendancy  early  developed  in  the  Latin  language  to  pass 
from  a  synthetic  to  an  analytic  state.  Thus,  instead  of 
the  synthetic  forms  DIXI,  PARAVI,  SCRIPSERAM,  &c.,  the 
analytic  forms  HABEO  DICTUM,  HABEO  PARATUM,  HABEBAM 
SCRIPTUM,  &c.,  which  were  sometimes  used  even  in  the 
Augustan  age,  became  more  and  more  frequent  in  later 
Latin,  until,  in  the  new  languages,  they  were  universally 
adopted. 

The  simple  future  is  the  result  of  a  peculiar  combina- 
tion of  HABEO  with  the  infinitive.  Even  Cicero  used  such 
forms  as  HABEO  CONVENIRE,  HABEO  AD  TE  SCRIBERE,  and  St. 
Augustine  writes  VENIRE  HABET  (he  will  come).  After  the 
sixth  century  the  forms  AMARE  HABEO,  PARTIRE  HABEO,  VE- 
NIRE HABET  became  much  more  common  than  AMABO,  PAR- 
TIAR,  VENTET,  and  preserving  the  same  inverted  order, 
they  ultimately  became  the  exclusive  forms  in  the  Ko- 
manic  languages.  In  the  Provencal  these  forms  were 
never  combined,  as  in  French,  Italian  and  Spanish,  to 
form  a  single  word,  and  AD  vos  DICERE  HABEO  is  written 
vos-dir-ai,  or  dir-vos-ai,  (Fr.  je  vous  dirai,  It.  vi  diro, 
Sp.  os  dire).  The  personal  endings  of  the  future  of  all 
verbs  take  nearly  the  same  form  as  those  of  the  present 
tense  of  HABEO  in  each  language. 

Latin,  HAB-EO-ES-ET-EMUS-ETIS-ENT. 

Spanish,  h-e-as-a-emos-eis-an. 

Italian,  h-o-ai-a-(abbiamo)  emo-(av)ete-anno. 
French,          ai-as-a-(av)ons  (av)ez-out. 

The  conditional,  indicating  the  future  as  looked  at 
from  the  past  (as  the  future  tense  indicates  the  future 
as  regarded  in  the  present),  is  formed  of  the  infinitive 
and  the  terminations  of  the  imperfect  in  Spanish  and 
French,  and  of  the  preterite  in  Italian.  The  Spanish 
imperfect  subjunctive  in  am  and  era  is  formed  from 
AREM,  EREM  of  the  same  tense  in  Latin. 

The  final  vowel  of 'the  Latin  infinitive  has  uniformly 


40  FORMATION  OF  TENSES. 

been  suppressed  in  Spanish  and  in  French  (except  in 
the  4th  conjugation),  but  retained  in  Italian.     Ex. 

1.  CURARE,  curar ;  Fr.  carer ;  It.  curare. 

2.  DEBERE,  deber ;  devoir;  dovere. 

3.  RUMPERE,  romper;  rompre;  rompere. 

4.  SENTIRE,  sentir ;  sentir  ;  sentire. 

Latin  verbs  of  the  1st  conjugation  are  uniformly  of 
the  first  in  the  modern  languages  ;  those  of  the  2nd 
and  3d  are  generally  of  the  second  in  Spanish  and 
Italian,  and  of  the  fourth  (sometimes  the  third)  in 
French,  (but  some  are  of  the  third  in  Spanish,  second 
or  third  in  Italian,  second  or  fourth  in  French);  those 
of  the  4th  are  usually  of  the  third  in  Spanish  and 
Italian,  and  of  the  second  in  French.  Examples  in 
addition  to  those  above  are  : 

ABOLERE,  abolir ;  It.  abolire  ;  Fr.  abolir. 

FUGERE,  huir ;  -fuggire ;  fuir. 

TENERE,  tenir ;  tenere ;  tenir. 

VIVERE,  vivir ;  vivere ;  vivre. 

26.     FORMATION  OF  THE  TENSES. 
(Formation  de  los  Tiempos). 

Tenses  may  be  regarded  as  primitive  or  derivative. 
The  primitive  tenses,  or  principal  parts,  are  the  present 
infinitive,  the  present  indicative,  the  preterite  indicative 
and  the  past  participle. 

1.     From  the  present  infinitive  is  formed  : 

(a)  the  imperfect  indicative  by  changing  ar  into  aba, 

and  er,  ir  into  ia. 

(b)  the  future  indicative  by  adding  e. 

(c)  the  conditional  (or  third  form  of  the  imperfect  sub- 

junctive) by  adding  ia. 


FORMATION  OF  TENSES.  41 

(d)  the   second   person   plural   of  the   imperative    by 

changing  r  into  d. 

(e)  the  gerund  (or  present  participle)   by   changing  ar 

into  ando,  er  and  ir  into  iendo. 

2.  From  the  present  indicative  is  formed  : 

(a)  from  the  first  person  singular,  the  present  subjunc- 

tive by  changing  o  into  e  for  the  first  conjugation, 
and  o  into  a  for  the  second  and  third  conjuga- 
tions. 

(b)  from  the  third  person  singular,  the  second  person 

singular  of  the  imperative. 

3.  From  the  third  person  plural  of  the  preterite  is 
formed  : 

(a)  the  first    form    of    the   imperfect    subjunctive   by 

changing  ron  into  se. 

(b)  the  second  form  of  the   imperfect  subjunctive  by 

changing  ron  into  ra. 

(c)  the  future  of  the  subjunctive  by  changing  ron  into  re. 

4.  From  the  past  participle,    (with   the  aid  of  the 
auxiliary  verbs),  are  formed  all  the  compound  tenses* 

NOTE.     The  past  participle  of  the  first  conjugation 
ends  in  ado,  of  the  second  and  third  in  ido. 

REM.     These  rules  may  be   applied  to  the  irregular 
verbs,  with  the  following  exceptions  : 

1.     (a)  ser  imperfect  era  ;  ver,  veia  ;  ir,  iba. 

1.     (b)   (c)  caber,  future  cabre,  conditional  cabria ;  haber, 

habre-bria ;    hacer,  hare-ria ;   poder,  podre-dria ; 

poner,  pondre-dria  ;    qaerer,    querre-rria ;   saber, 

sabre-bria ;    voter,    valdre-dria ;    decir,   dire-ria  ; 

salir,  saldre-dria  ;  venir,  vendre-dria ; 


42  AUXILIARY   VERBS, 

2.  (a)  ser,  sea;  estar,  este ;  dar,  de  ;  haber,  haya ;  ir, 
vaya  ;  saber,  sepa; 

2.  (b)  hacer,  haz  ;  poner,  pon  ;  ser,  se ;  tener,  ten  ;  decir, 
di ;  salir,  sal  ;  venir,  ven.  In  the  first  person  plu- 
ral of  the  imperative  of  ir,  vamos  is  used  for 
vayamos. 

27.     AUXILIARY  VERBS.     (  Verbos  Auxiliares). 

I.  The  verbs  most  frequently  used  as  auxiliaries  are  : 
ser,        ESSE,  (ESSERE)  ;     It.  esscre  ;     Fr.  etre,       to  be. 
haber,    HABERE  ;  It.  avere  ;      Fr.  avoir,    to  have. 

(a)  ser  is  used  in  conjugating  all  the  tenses  of  verbs  in 

the  passive  form.     (See  30). 

(b)  Haber  is  used  in  forming  the  compound  tenses  of 

all  verbs. 

II.  There  are  two  other  verbs,  having  a  very  differ- 
ent use  and  signification  in  Spanish,  which  are  rendered 
into  English  in  the  same  manner  as  ser  and  haber,  viz  : 
estar,  STARE  ;         It.  stare;          Fr.  to  be. 
tener,          TENERE  ;             tener e  ;               tenir,       to  have. 

(a)  Estar  can  only  be  used  to  express  a  transitory  state 

or  quality,  while  ser  always  implies  a  permanent 
state  or  essential  quality.  (Estar  expresses  the 
concrete,  ser  the  abstract).  Ex.  Estd  melanco- 
lico  hoy,  he  is  melancholy  to-day.  Es  un  hombre 
melancolico,  he  is  a  melancholy  man. 

NOTE. — Estar  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  with  the  gerund. 
Ex.  Estoy  leyendo,  estd  escribiendo,  I  am  reading,  he  is 
writing. 

(b)  Tener  is  employed  to  express   possession,  to  have 

(to  hold)  as  an  active  verb,  while  haber  is  always 
auxiliary.  Ex.  Tiene  un  empleo  excelente,  he  has 
an  excellent  employment  (place). 


CONJUGATIONS. 


43 


NOTE. — Tener  is  sometimes  used  as  an  auxiliary.     Ex. 
Tengo  probado  que  es  sabio,  I  have  proved  that  he  is  wise. 

28.     CONJUGATION  OF  Ser,  Estar,  Haber  and  Tener. 
Infinitive.      (Infinitivo). 


To  have. 
Haber  Tener 


To  be. 

Ser  Estar 

Gerund.     (Gerundio). 

Being.  Having. 

Siendo  Estando  Habiendo  Teniendo 

Past  Participle.     (Participio  Preterite}. 


Been. 

Had. 

Sido 

Estado 

Habido 

Tenido 

Indicative. 

(Indicative}. 

Present. 

(Presente). 

I  am. 

I  have. 

Yo     soy 
Tu     eres 

Estoy 

Estas 

He 

Has 

Tengo 
Tienes 

El     es 

Esta 

Ha 

Tiene 

Nosotros  somos       Estamos 

Hemos 

Tenemos 

Yosotros  sois 

Estais 

Habeis 

Teneis 

Ellos  son 

Estan 

Han 

Tienen 

Imperfect.     (Imperfecto). 
I  was.  I  had. 

Yo     era  Estaba  Habia 

Tu     eras  Estabas  Habias 

El      era  Estaba  Habia 

Nosotros  eramos  Estabamos  Habiamos 

Vosotros  erais  Estabais  Habiais 

Ellos  eran  Estaban  Habian 


Tenia 

Tenias 

Tenia 

Teniamos 

Teniais 

Tenian 


44  CONJUGATIONS. 

Preterite  Definite.     (Preterito  Determinado}. 


I  was. 


I  had. 


Fui 

Fuiste 

Fue 

Fuimos 

Fuisteis 

F  tier  on 


Estuve 

Estuviste 

Estuvo 

Estuvimos 

Estuvisteis 

Estuvieron 


Future. 


I  shall  be. 


Sere  Estare 

Seras  Estaras 

Sera  Estara 

Seremos  Estaremos 

Sereis  Estareis 

Seran  Estaran 


Hube 

Hubiste 
Hubo 
Hubimos 
Hubisteis 
Hubieron 

(Faturo). 
I  shall 

Habre 
Habras 
Habra 
Habremos 
Habreis 
Habran 

Tuve 
Tuviste 
Tuvo 
Tuvimos 
Tuvisteis 
Tuvieron 

have. 

Teridre 
Tendras 
Tendra 
Tendremos 
Tendreis 
Tendran 

Subjunctive.     (Sujuntivo).     Present. 


I  may  be. 

Sea  Este 

Seas 

Sea 

Seamos 

Seals 


I  may  have. 


Sean 


Estes 

Este 

Estemos 

Esteis 

Esten 


Haya 

Hayas 

Haya 

Hayamos 

Hayais 

Hayan 


Tenga 

Tengas 

Tenga 

Tengamos 

Tengais 

Tengan 


Imperfect. 
I  should  be. 


Fuese 

Fueses 

Fuese 

Fuesemos 

Fueseis 

Fuesen 


Estuviese 

Estuvieses 

Estuviese 

Estuviesemos 

Estuvieseis 

Estuviesen 


(First  Form). 

I  should  have. 

Hubiese  Tuviese 

Hubieses  Tuvieses 

Hubiese  Taviese 

Hubiesemos  Tuviesemos 

Hubieseis  Tuvieseis 

Hubiesen  Tuviesen 


CONJUGATIONS. 

Imperfect.     (Second  Form). 


45 


I  should 

or  would  be. 

I  should  or  would  have. 

Fuera 

Estuviera 

Hubiera 

Tuviera 

Fueras 

Estuvieras 

Hubieras 

Tuvieras 

Fuera 

Estuviera 

Hubiera 

Tuviera 

Fueramos 

Estuvieramos 

Hubieramos 

Tuvieramos 

Fuerais 

Estuvierais 

Hubierais 

Tuvierais 

Fuera,n 

Estuvieran 

Hubieran 

Tuvieran 

Imperfect  (Third  Form)  (Conditional).     (Conditional), 
I  would  be.  I  would  have. 


Seria  Estaria 

Serias  Estarias 

Seria  Estaria 

Seriamos  Estariamos 

Seriais  Estariais 

Serian  Estarian 


Habria 

Habrias 

Habria 

Habriamos 

Habriais 

Habrian 


Tendria 

Tendrias 

Tendria 

Tendriamos 

Tendriais 

Tendrian 


Future.     (Conditional). 

I  might  or  should  be.         I  might  or  should  have. 

Fuere  Estuviere          Hubiere  Tuviere 

Fueres  Estuvieres        Hubieres  Tuvieres 

Fuere  Estuviere          Hubiere  Tuviere 

Fueremos  Estuvieremos  Hubieremos  Tuvieremos 

Fuereis  Estuviereis       Hubiereis  Tuviereis 

Fueren  Estuvieren       Hubieren  Tuvieren 

Imperative.     (Imperativo') . 

Let  me  be.  Let  me  have. 

(Sea  yo) 

Se  tu 

Sea  el  (or  F.) 

(Seamos  nosotros) 

Sed  vosotros 

Sean  ellos  (or  V.) 


(Este  yo) 
Esta  " 
Este 
Estemos 
Estad 
Esten 

(Hay  a  yo) 
He 
(Haya) 
(Hayamos) 
Habed 
(Hay  an) 

(Tenga  yo) 
Ten 
Tenga 
Tengamos 
Tened 
Tengan 

46  CONJUGATIONS. 

The  compound  tenses  are  all  formed  by  adding  the 
past  participle  to  the  simple  tenses  of  Haber. 

Indicative  Present  Perfect. 
I  have  been.  I  have  had. 

7i 

He  sido,  &c.     He  estado,  &c.  He  te&ido,  &c. 

Pluperfect.     (Pluscuamperfecto). 

I  had  been.  I  had  had. 

Habia  sido,  &c.      Habia  estado,  &c.     Habia  tenido,  &c. 

Preterite  Perfect. 

I  had  been.  I  had  had. 

Hube  sido,  &c.      Hube  estado,  &c.        Hube  tenido,  &c. 

Future  Perfect. 

I  shall  have  been.  I  shall  have  had. 

Habre  sido,  &c.    Habre  estado,  &c.     Habre  tenido,  &c. 

Subjunctive  Present  Perfect. 
I  may  have  been.  I  may  have  had. 

Haya  sido,  &c.        Hay  a  estado,  &c.        Hay  a  tenido,  &c. 
Pluperfect. 

I  had,  might,  should  or  I  had,  might,  should  or 

would,  have  been.  would,  have  had. 

Hubiese  sido,  &c., — estado,  &c.          Hubi§e  tenido,  &c. 
Hubiera  sido,  &c., — estado,  &c.          Hubiera  tenido,  &c. 
Habria  sido,    &c., — estado,  &c.          Habria  tenido,  &c. 

Future  Perfect.     (Conditional). 

I  might   or   should  have  been — had. 

Hubiere  sido,  &c.  Hubiere  estado  &c.  Hubiere  tenido,  &c. 


CONJUGATIONS.  47 

Infinitive.     Past  Perfect. 

To  have  been.  To  have  had. 

Haber  sido.  Haber  estado.  Haber  tenido. 

Having  been.  Gerund.  Past  Perfect.  Having  had. 
Habiendo  sido-estado.  Habiendo  habido-tenido. 

REM.  1.  The  pronouns,  as  subjects,  are  commonly 
not  expressed  in  Spanish  (as  the  terminations  sufficient- 
ly indicate  the  person),  except  when  it  is  desired  to 
mark  particular  emphasis  or  contrast,  but  usted  (plural 
ustedex],  contracted  from  vuestra  merced,  your  honor, 
your  worship  ;  written  F.  VV.  (formerly  Vd.  Vm.  Vmd., 
Vds.  Vms.  Vmdx.),  and  used  instead  of  the  pronoun  of 
the  second  person,  is  always  expressed.  Ex.  Yo  Jo  he 
visto,  I  have  seen  it.  El  canta  y  yo  lloro,  he  sings  and 
I  weep.  /  Habla  F.  Espafiol  f  $Hablan  V  F.  Frances  f 
Do  you  speak  Spanish  ?  Do  you  speak  French  ? 

REM.  2.  The  verb  is  conjugated  negatively  by  pre- 
fixing no  to  all  the  forms.  No  soy,  no  era,  no  he  sido  &c. 

REM.  3.  Yerbs  are  conjugated  interrogatively  by 
placing  the  pronoun  after  the  verb  as  in  English,  though 
the  pronoun  may  be  omitted  and  the  question  indicated 
by  the  inflection  of  the  voice.  Ex.  /  Habla  cl  ?  Does 
he  speak  V  g  Escribe  f  Is  he  writing  ? 

REM.  4.  Haber  is  used  as  a  unipersonal  verb  in  the 
third  person  singular  of  all  the  tenses.  But  in  the 
present  tense  the  unipersonal  form  is  hay  instead  of  ha, 
except  in  the  expressions  ha  lagar,  there  is  room,  and 
doce  ottos  ha,  (for  hay  doce  aflos],  twelve  years  ago. 
Ex.  Hay  gente  (6  gentes)  there  are  people.  Habrd 
gaerra  (6  guerras),  there  will  be  war  (or  wars). 

OBS.  The  comparative  conjugation  of  ser  only  is 
given,  since  it  is  the  representative  of  the  single  auxil- 
iary verb  in  Latin.  Extar,  haber  and  tener,  belong 
properly  with  verbs  of  the  first  and  second  conjugation. 


48 


CONJUGATIONS. 


Latin. 

Spanish. 

Italian. 

French. 

ESSE 

ser 

essere 

etre  (ess'  re  estre) 

SUM 

soy 

sono 

suis 

ES 

eres 

sei 

es 

EST 

es 

S6 

est 

SUM  US 

somos 

siamo 

sommes 

ESTIS 

sois 

siete 

fetes 

SUNT 

son 

sono 

so  ut 

ERAM 

era 

era 

(etais) 

ERAS 

eras 

eri 

(etais) 

ERAT 

era 

era 

(etait) 

ERAMUS 

e  ram  os' 

eravamo 

(etions) 

ERATIS 

erais 

eravate 

(6tiez) 

ERANT 

eran 

erano 

(6talent) 

FUI 

fui 

fui 

fus 

FUISTI 

fuiste 

fosti 

fus 

FUIT 

fne 

fu 

fut 

FUIMUS 

fuimos 

fumino 

fumes 

FUISTIS 

fuisteis 

foste 

fGtes 

FUERUNT 

fueron 

furono 

furent 

SIM 

.4 

sia 

sois 

SIS 

seas 

sii 

sois 

SIT 

sea 

sia 

soit 

8IMUS 

seamos 

siamo 

soyons 

SITIS 

seats 

siate 

soyez 

SI  NT 

sean 

siaiio 

soient 

FUISSEM 

fuese 

fossi 

fusse 

FUISSES 

fueses 

fossi 

fusses 

FUISSET 

fuese 

fosse 

fut 

FUISSEMUS 

fuesemos 

fossimo 

fussions 

FUISETIS 

fueseis 

foste 

fussiez 

FUISSENT 

fuesen 

fosse  ro 

fusse  nt 

ES 

se 

sii 

sois 

ESTO 

sea 

sia 

soit 

ESTE 

sed 

siate 

soyez 

SUNTO 

sean 

siano 

soient 

29.     TABLE  or  THE  TEEMINATIONS  or  REGULAR  VERBS  IN 

THE    THREE    CONJUGATIONS. 

(NOTE.  For  the  convenience  of  the  student,  in  learn- 
ing this  table,  the  accent  is  written  except  when  it  falls 
on  the  vowel  of  the  root. ) 


CONJUGATIONS.  49 

First  Conjugation.     Second  Conjugation.     Third  Conjugation. 
Infinitive  Present. 

u4m-ar  (to  love)         Tern-ex  (to  fear)        Viv—ir  (to  live) 
AMAHE,  It.  amare,  Fr.  aimer.    TIMBRE,  temere,  —.    VIYEKE,  vivere,  vivre. 


Am — ando 


Am — ante 


Am — ado 


1.  am — o, 

2.  tern — o, 

3.  viv — o, 


Gerund. 
Tern — iendo 

Participle  Present. 
Tern — iente 

Participle  Past. 
Tern — ido 

Indicative  Present. 


as, 
es, 

es, 


amos,  ais. 
emos,  eis, 
imos,  is, 


Viv — iendo 


Viv — iente 


Viv — ido 


an. 
en. 
en. 


Imperfect,  (or  Past  Co-existent). 

1.  am — aba,     abas,     aba,     abamos,     abais,  aban. 

2.  tern — ia,        ias,        ia,        iamos,        iais,  lan. 

3.  viv — ia,        ias,        ia,        iamos,        iais,  ian. 

Preterite,  (or  Past  Absolute). 

1.  am — e,          aste,     6,         amos,         asteis,  aron. 

2.  tern — i,         iste,      io,        imos,          isteis,  ieron. 

3.  viv — i,          iste,      io,        imos,          isteis,  ieron. 

Future. 

1.  am — are       aras,     ara      aremos,     areis,  aran. 

2.  tern — ere      eras,     era      eremos,     ereis,  eran. 

3.  viv — ire,       iras,      ira,      iremos,      ireis,  iran. 

7 


50 


CONJUGATIONS. 


Subjunctive  Present. 


1.  am — e. 

2.  tern — a, 

3.  viv — a, 


es, 
as. 
as, 


e, 
a, 
a, 


emos,  eis, 
am  os,  ais, 
amos,  ais, 


en. 
an. 

an. 


Imperfect,  (First  Form). 


impenect,  ^rirsc  jporm;. 

1.  am — ase,      ases,      ase,     asemos,      aseis,  asen. 

2.  tern — iese,    ieses,    iese,    iesemos,     ieseis,  iesen. 

3.  viv — iese,     ieses,    iese,    iesemos,    ieseis,  iesen. 

Imperfect,  (Second  Form). 

1.  am — ara,      aras,     ara,      aramos,     arais,  aran. 

2.  tern — iera,    ieras,    iera,    ieramos,    ierais,  ieran. 

3.  viv — iera,     ieras,    iera,    ieramos,    ierais,  ieran. 

Imperfect,   (Third  Form). 

1.  am — aria,    arias,    aria,    ariamos,    ariais,  arian. 

2.  tern — eria,    erias,    eria,    eriamos,    eriais,  erian. 

3.  viv — iria,     irias,     iria,     iriamos, "  iriais,  irian. 

Future 

1.  am — are,     ares,     are,      aremos,      areis,  aren. 

2.  tern — iere,    ieres,    iere,    ieremos,    iereis,  ieren. 

3.  viv — iere,     ieres,    iere,    ieremos,    iereis,  ieren. 


Imperative. 


1.  am — 

2.  tern — 

3.  viv — 


en. 
an. 
an. 


a,  e,         emos,         ad, 

e,          a,         amos,         ed, 
e,          a,         amos,         id, 

The  compound  tenses  are  all  formed  by  prefixing  the 
simple  tenses  of  the  auxiliary  haber,  to  the  past  parti- 
ciple of  each  verb.  Ex.  He  amado,  habia  temido,  hube 
vivido,  &c. 


CONJUGATIONS.  51 

HEM.  1.  In  the  conjugation  of  verbs  ending  in  car, 
gar,  or  zar,  c  is  changed  to  qu,  g  to  gu,  and  z  to  c  for 
euphony,  whenever  those  letters  precede  e.  Ex.  toque, 
I  touched  ;  pagtte,  I  paid  ;  alcen,  they  rise. 

REM.  2.  Those  ending  in  cer,  cir,  ger,  gir,  and  quir, 
change  c  to  z,  g  to  j,  and  qu  to  c  before  a  or  o.  Ex.  ve^zo 
from  veneer,  to  conquer  ;  finjo  from  fingir,  to  feign  ;  6?€- 
<?mco  from  delinquir,  to  transgress. 

REM.  3.  Verbs  which  end  in  aer,  eer,  oer,  change  the 
i  of  the  termination  into  y  whenever  it  precedes  an  ac- 
cented vowel.  Ex.  rai,  rayo,  rayeron  ;  crei,  creyo, 
creyeron  ;  roi,  rogo,  royeron  ;  (from  raer,  to  scrape,  creer, 
to  create,  and  roer,  to  gnaw). 

REM.  4.  Verbs  ending  in  uir,  not  preceded  by  q, 
change  i  into  y  before  another  vowel.  Ex.  arguir, 
arguyo  ;  contribuir,  contribuyo  ;  huir,  huyo,  huya,  &c. 
Others  in  guir  drop  the  u  before  a  or  o.  Ex.  seguir, 
sigo,  siga,  &c. 

REM.  5.  In  verbs  that  end  in  acer,  ecer,  ocer,  ucir,  z 
is  inserted  before  c  when  the  latter  precedes  a  or  o,  ex- 
cept hacer  and  its  compounds,  and  placer,  mecer,  cocer, 
escocer,  and  recocer.  (See  34  ;  conocer  and  conducir). 

REM.  6.  Verbs  ending  in  chir,  Uir  and  fiir,  lose  the 
i  before  e  or  o.  Ex.  hinchera,  mullo,  ciftendo,  (except 


>  —  The  second  person  plural  of  the  preterite  in- 
dicative is  found,  in  the  writings  of  early  authors,  end- 
ing in  es  instead  of  eis,  as  amastes  for  amasteis.  The 
same  person  of  the  other  tenses  is  also  found  ending  in 
des  instead  of  is,  as  amades  for  amais,  amabades  for  ama- 
bais,  &c. 

OBS.  The  personal  endings,  with  the  connecting 
vowel  and  tense  sign,  have  generally  been  preserved  in 
the  simple  tenses  of  the  Romanic  languages,  with  cer- 


52 


CONJUGATIONS. 


>  tain  euphonic  changes  peculiar  to  each.  These  changes 
have  been  the  most  marked  in  French  and  the  least  in 
Spanish,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  comparative  view 
given  in  the  following  tables  : 

I.     First  Conjugation,  Amar. 


Latin. 

Spanish. 

Italian. 

French. 

AM-ARE 

ara-ar 

ana-are 

aim-er 

o 

0 

0 

e 

AS 

as 

i 

es 

AT 

a 

a 

e  (et) 

AMU8 

amos 

iamo 

ons 

ATIS 

ais 

ate 

ez 

ANT 

an 

ano 

ent 

ABAM 

aba 

ava 

ais  (ive)  (oie)  (s) 

ABAS 

abas 

avi 

ais 

ABAT 

aba 

ava 

ait 

ABAM  US 

abamos 

ava  mo 

ions 

ABATIS 

abais 

avate 

iez 

ABANT 

aban 

avano 

aient 

AVI 

e 

ai 

ai 

AVISTI 

aste 

asti 

as 

AVIT 

6 

t> 

a  (at) 

A  VIM  US 

amos 

ammo 

ames 

AVISTIS 

asteis 

aste 

ates  (astes) 

AVERUNT 

aron 

arono 

irent 

EM 

e 

i 

e 

ES 

es 

i 

es 

ET 

e 

i 

e(et) 

EMUS 

emos 

iamo 

ions 

ETIS 

eis 

iate 

iez 

ENT 

en 

ino 

ent 

AVISSEM 

ase 

•assi 

asse  (aisse) 

AVISSES 

ases 

assi 

asses 

AVISSET 

ase 

asse 

at  (aist) 

AVISSEMUS 

asemos 

assimo 

assions 

AVISSETIS 

aseis 

aste 

assiez 

AVISSENT 

asen 

assero 

assent 

A 

a 

a 

e 

ANTEM 

ante 

ante 

ant 

ATUM 

ado 

ato 

an  do 


an  do 


CONJUGATIONS. 


53"/ 


II.     Second  and  Third  Conjuga 


Deber,     DEBEEE  ;         It.  dovere  ;         Fr.  devoir,     to  owe. 
Vender,  VENDERE  ;       It.  vender  e  ;       Fr.  vendre,    to  sell. 

Servir,    SERVIRE  ;        It.  servire  ;        Fr.  servir,   to  serve. 

2(1. 

4th.  3d. 

2(1.    3(1. 

2d.    3d. 

3d.    2d.    4th. 

E 

(I)     0 

0 

0 

oi  (i)  s 

s 

es 

i 

oi  (i)  s 

T 

e 

e 

oi  (i)     t 

MUS 

e  (i)  mos 

iarao 

ev  (iss)  ous 

TIS 

eis  (is) 

e  (i)  te 

ev  (iss)  ez 

(IT)  NT 

en 

ono 

oiv  (iss)  ent 

(I)   EBAM 

ia 

e  (i)  va 

ev  (iss)  ais  (ois) 

EBAS 

ias 

e  vi)  vi 

ais 

BEAT 

ia 

e  (i)  va 

ait 

EBAMUS 

iamos 

e  (i)  vamo 

ions 

EBATIS 

iais 

e  (i)  vate 

iez 

EBANT 

iau 

e  (i)  vano 

aient 

U 

(IV)   I 

i 

e  (i)i 

u  (i)  s  (0.  F.  i) 

ISTI 

isti 

e  (i)  sti 

s 

IT 

i6 

fe(D 

t 

IMUS 

imos 

e  (i)  mmo 

mes 

ISTIS 

isteis 

e  (i)  ste 

tes 

ERUKT 

ieron 

e  (i)  rono 

rent 

E 

(1)       AM 

a 

a 

oiv  (iss)  e 

AS 

as 

a(i) 

es 

AT 

a 

a 

e 

AMIIS 

amos 

iamo 

ions 

ATIS 

ais 

iate 

iez 

ANT 

an 

ano 

ent 

U 

(IV)  ISSEM 

iese 

e(i)  ssi 

u  (i)  sse 

ISSES 

ieses 

e  (i)  ssi 

sses 

ISSET 

iese 

e(i)  sse 

t 

ISSEMUS 

iesemos 

e(i)  ssimo 

ssions 

ISSETIS 

ieseis 

e  (i)  ste 

ssiez 

ISSENT 

iesen 

e  (i)  ssero 

ssent 

E 

(I)       E 

e 

i 

oi  (i)  s 

(I)       ENTEM 

iente 

eute 

ev  (iss)  ant 

(I)      TUS 

ido 

uto 

u(i)u 

(I)       ENDUM 

iendo 

endo 

54  VEKBS. 

30.      PASSIVE  VERB. 

Passive  verbs  are  conjugated  by  prefixing  to  the  past 
participle  of  an  active  verb  all  the  tenses,  simple  and 
compound,  of  ser.  Ex.  /Sb?y  amado-a,  sere  amado-a, 
hemos  sido  amados,  habeis  sido  amadas  dec. 

NOTE. — When  state  or  condition  is  indicated  estar  is 
used  instead  of  ser.  Ex.  La  carta  e$td  mal  excrita,  the 
letter  is  badly  written. 

31.  PRONOMINAL  VERBS. 

Pronominal  (or  reflective)  verbs  are  conjugated  with 
the  accusative  of  the  personal  pronouns,  which  is  always 
expressed,  though  the  subject  is  often  omitted.  Ex. 

Present  Infinitive,    Alabarsv,       to  praise  one's  self. 
Gerund,  Alabandoxe,  praising  one's  self. 

Past  Participle,         AlaJbadosi,     having  praised  one's  self. 

Present.  Indicative.  Present  Perfect 

To  me  alabo,  I  praise  myself.  Me  he  alabado. 

Tu  te  aloha*-,  thou  praiscst  thyself.      Te  has  alabado. 

El  se  alnba,  he  praises  himself.         Se  ha  alabado. 

Noxotros  nos  aldbamos,  we  praise  ourselves.  Nos  hemos  alabado. 
Vosotros  vos  (dabais,  you  praise  yourselves.  Vos  habeis  alabado. 
ELLos  se  alaban,  they  praise  themselves.  Se  han  alabado. 

32.  UNIPERSONAL  VERBS. 

Unipersonal  verbs  are  conjugated  like  other  verbs, 
but  only  in  the  third  person  singular  of  each  tense. 

Llover,  to  rain  ;  Uomendo,  raining  ;  llovido,  rained. 

Pres.  llove,      it  rains.  Ha  llovido,        it  has  rained. 

Imp.  llovia,    it  was  raining.  Habia  llovido,  it  had  rained. 

Pret.  llovio,    it  rained.  Hubo  llovido,     it  had  rained. 

Fut.  lloverd,  it  will  rain.       HaJbrd  llovido,  it  will  have  rained. 


VERBS.  55 

33.     DETECTIVE  VERBS.     (  Verbos  Defectives). 

The  following  verbs  are  used  only  in  certain  tenses 
and  persons  : 

1.  Concernir,  to  concern;  pres.  concierne,  conciernen  ; 
imperf.   concernia-concernian  ;   pres.    subj.  concierna-n  ; 
ger.  concerniendo  ;  pres.  part,  concerniente. 

2.  Erguir,  to  erect  ;  pres.  erguimos,   erguis ;    imperf. 
erguia-as,    &c. ;     pret.    ergui-iste,   erguimos,    erguisteis ; 
fut.  erguire-as,  &c.  ;  imper.  erguid ;  imperf.  subj.,  ergui- 
ria-as,  &c.  ;  part,  erguido. 

NOTE. — In  addition  to  these  forms  as  given  in  the 
grammar  of  the  Academy,  some  authors  use  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Pres.          ?/ergo,  ?/ergues,      ?/ergue,          yerguen. 

Pret.  ixguio,  ^rguieron,  Ger.  wguiendo. 

Subj.          2/erga-as-a,    irgamos-ais-?/ergan. 

3.  Placer,  to  please  ;  pres.  me  place,  te  place,  le  place, 
nos  place,  &c.  ;  imperf:  me  placia ;   pret.  me  pJugo ;    sub. 
plazca  plega  or  plegue  (a  Dios)  pluguiera,  pluguiese    (al 
cielo) ;  fut.    me  pluguiere. 

4.  Podrir,  to  rot ;  imperf.  sub.  podriria-as ;   imper. 
podrid  ;  part,  podrido. 

5.  Soler,  to  be  accustomed  ;  pres.  suelo-es-e,  solemos, 
soleis,  suelen ;  imperf.   solia-as,  &c.  ;   pret.  soli  (rarely)  ; 
pres.  perf.  he  solido,  has  solido,  &c. 

6.  Yacer,  to  h'e  (down)  ;   pres.  yace  yacen ;  imperf. 
yacia ;     yaz-co(a),    (go-a),    yago-a,    and     yaciere    are 
rarely  found. 


56  VERBS. 

34.     IRREGULAR  VERBS.     (  Verbos  Irregulares). 

The  number  of  irregular  verbs  (said  to  be  about  five 
hundred  and  fifty  including  compounds)  is  greater  in 
Spanish  than  in  the  other  languages,  since  nearly  all 
the  irregularities  of  the  Latin  verb  are  retained.  These 
verbs  may  be  separated  into  two  divisions  : 

I.  Those  having  irregularities  in  common  with  others. 

II.  Those  having  irregular  forms  peculiar  to  thern- 
SAlves  (i.  e.  to  each  verb). 

I.  The  verbs  having  a  common  irregularity  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes  : 

a.  Those  which  admit  an  i  before  the  radical  e. 

b.  Those  which  change  the  radical  o  into  ue. 

c.  Those  which  change  the  radical  e  into  i. 

NOTE  1. — The  irregularity  of  most  of  those  verbs  is 
found  only  in  the  present  of  the  indicative  subjunctive 
and  imperative,  in  the  three  persons  of  the  singular  and 
the  third  person  plural. 

NOTE  2. — Verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  are  also  irreg- 
ular in  the  gerund,  the  preterite  (third  person  singular 
and  plural)  and  its  derivatives.  They  also  change  e  into 
«',  and  o  into  u  in  the  first  and  second  persons  plural  of 
the  subjunctive,  and  first  person  plural  of  the  impera- 
tive. 

1.    Acertar,  to  hit  the  mark,  (AD  CERTARE,    It.  accertare] . 

a.    2.    Ascender,  to  ascend,         (ASCENDERE,      ascendere). 

3.    Sentir,  to  feel,       (SENTIRE,    It.  sentir  e,  Fr.  sentir). 


Pres.  Ind. 


1. 

acierto         2. 

asc^'endo         3. 

s^'ento 

ac^ertas 

asciendes 

s^'entes 

acz'erta 

asciende 

s^ente 

acertamos 

ascendemos 

sentimos 

acertais 

ascendeis 

sentis 

acz'ertan 

ascz'enden 

si'enten 

VEBBS. 


57 


aci'erte 

ascienda 

s^'enta 

ac?'ertes 

asctendas 

sz'entas 

aczerte 

ascz'enda 

s^'enta 

acertemos 

ascendamos 

smtamos 

acerteis 

ascendais 

smtais 

ac£erteri 

asc^endau 

sientan 

acierta 

asciende 

si'ente 

aczerte 

ascienda 

sz'enta 

acertemos 

ascendamos 

sintamos 

acertacl 

ascended 

stntid 

aczerten 

asciendan 

sfentaii 

Pres.  Subj. 


Imper. 


Additional  irregularities  of  verbs  of  the  Third  Conju- 
gation : 

Gerund.  Preterite. 

smtiendo.  sintio — smtieron . 

Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

First  Form.  Second  Form. 

smtiese,    smtiesemos,  smtiera,    smtieramos, 

smtieses,  smtieseis,  smtieras,  smtierais. 

sintiese,    smtiesen,  smtiera,    smtieran. 

Future, 
siiitiere — es — e.  smtieremos — eis — en. 

BEM.     Discernir  changes  the  e  into  ie  like  sentir,  but 
in  the  other  forms  is  regular. 


1.  C  Acostar,  to  put  in  bed,  (AD  COSTAM,      accostare,  accoster). 
b.    2.  }  Absolver,  to  absolve,       (ABSOLVERE,   assolvere,  absoudre). 

3.  (  Dormir, 

,  to  sleep,            (DORMIHE,           dormire,  dormir). 

1. 

acwesto        2. 

abswelvo        3. 

d^/ermo 

acwestas 

absw  elves 

di/ei'mes 

acwesta 

abswelve 

dwerme 

Pres.  Ind. 

acostamos 

absolvemos 

dormimos 

acostais 

absolveis 

dormis 

acwestan 

abswelven 

duermen 

8 

ac?/<?ste 

abswelva 

duerm'j, 

acuestes 

abst/elvas 

dwermas 

acueste 

abswelva 

d^/^rma 

acostemos 

absolvamos 

d?^rmamos 

acosteis 

absolvais 

d?/rmais 

ac?/esten 

abs//dvan 

dwerman 

acz^^sta 

absttelve 

duerme 

acweste 

abswelva 

dwerma 

acostemos 

absolvamos 

dwrmamos 

acostad 

absolved 

dormid 

acwesten 

abst/dvan 

di^erman 

58  VERBS. 


Pres.  Subj. 


Imper. 


NOTE.  For  other  forms  of  dormir,  and  morir  (past 
part,  muerto)  see  34.  I.  NOTE  2. 

c.  Pedir,  to  ask,  solicit  ;  (PETERE),  gerund,  pidiendo, 
past  participle,  pedido. 

Pres.  Ind.  pido,     pMes,    pwie,    pedimos,     pedis,     piden. 

Pret.  pedi,  pediste  pwlio,  pedimos  pedisteis,  p^dieron. 

Pres  Subj.  pfda,     pMas     pida,      pidamos,     pMais,  pMan. 

Imperf.  pMiese,  ses,  &c.   pMiera,  as  &c.    pediria,  as  &c. 

II.     PROPER  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

Most  of  these  verbs  are  irregular  only  in  the  preterite 
and  in  the  first  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative 
and  their  derivatives.  When  the  future  indicative  is 
contracted,  the  third  form  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive 
has  the  same  irregularity.  The  other  tenses  may  be 
conjugated  according  to  the  rules  in  section  26. 

A.     First  Conjugation. 

1.  Andar,  to  go  ;  ADITARE,  It.  andare,  Fr.  aller. 
PreL  andttve — ?m'ste — uvo — z'mos — isteis — ierou,  &c. 
Imp.  Subj.  andim'ese  &c.  andwwera,  &c.  fut.  andw- 
viere,  &c. 


VERBS.  59 

2.  Dar,  to  give  ;  DARE,  It.  dare,  Fr.  (donner,  DONARE). 
Pres.    do?/,    das  &c.     Pret.    di,  dfste  dio,   dimos,  d^steis, 
dieron. 

3.  Estar,  to  be  :    (see  28.) 

4.  Jugar,    to   play  ;   JOCARE,    It.    giuocare,  Fr.  jouer. 
Pres.  juego,  as,  &c.  jugamos,  jugais,  juegan.     Pret.  jugwe 
jugaste,  jugo,  &c.     Subj.  juegue,  juegaes,  juegue,  jugwe- 
mos,  jugweis,  juegtten.     Imper.   juega,  juegwe,  jugt/mos, 
jugweis,  juegwen. 

B.     Second  Conjugation. 

1.  Caber,  to  contain,  hold ;  CAPERE,  /^.  capire,  JV.  cap- 
turer.     Pres.  quepo,  cabes,  &c.  (Subj.  guepa,  quepas&c.} 
Pret.  cupe,  capiske,  cupo,   cupiinoB,  cwpisteis,   cujoieron. 
Fat.    cabr0',-ras,-ra,    cabremos-reis-ran.     Imperf.  Subj.    ,- 
third  Form,    cabria,    cabrias    &c.     Imper.    cabe,    quepa,,    * 
quep&mos,  cabed,  quep&n. 

2.  Caer,  to  fall ;  CADERE.     It.  cadere  ;  Fr.  choir. 
Pres.  caigo,  caes,  &c.    Subj.  ca?'«gra,  ca^as,  &c.    Imper. 

cae    cafgra,    cafyamos,    caed    ca^an.     Gerund,   cayendo. 
Part,  caido. 

NOTE. — Eecaer  and  decaer  have  the   same  irregulari- 
ties. 

3.  Conocer,  to  know ;  COGNOSCERE.     It.  conoscere;  Fr. 
connaitre.     Pres.  conozco,  conoces,  &c.     Imper.  conoce, 
cono^ca,  conoced. 

4.  Haber,  to  have.     (See  28). 

5.  Hacer,  to  make ;  FACERE  ;  It.  fare  ;  Fr.  faire.    Pres. 
ha<7o,*"haces,   &c.     (Subj.  hagra  ha^as,  &c).     Pret.  hice, 
hiciste,    hizo,   hz'cimos,   hicisteis,   hicieron.     Fut.   hare, 
haras,    &cT^  (Cond.    Aaria    harias,    &c).       Imper.   haz, 
ha^a,  haced,  ha^an.     Part,  hecho. 


60  VERBS. 

NOTE. — The  compounds  of  hacer  are  conjugated  in 
the  same  manner,  except  that  we  find  saJtisface  as  well  as 
satisfaz. 

6.  Poder,  to  be  able  ;  POSSE,  (POTERE)  ;  It.  potere  ;  FT. 
pouvoir.     Pres.  puedo,  -es-e,  podemos,  podeis"  pi^eden. 
Pret.  pude,   pwdiste,  pudo,   pwdimos,  pz^disteis,  pi^die- 
ron.     Fut.  podre,  as,  &c.     Stibj.  p^eda-as-a,  podamos, 
-ais,  pwedan.     Imper.    puede,   pweda,  podamos,   poded,- 
pwedan.     Gerund,  pwdiendo. 

7.  Poner,    to  put;   PONERE.     It.  porre  ;    Fr.  pondre. 
Pres.   pongo,  pones,    &c.     (Siibj.    pon^a,  pon^as,    &c). 
Prct.  pw-se,  p^siste,  puso,  p^«imos,  pu.sisteis,  p^sieron. 
Fat.  pondre,  ponc?ras,  &c.     Imper.  pon,  pon^a,  poned, 
Part,  puesto. 

8.  Querer,    to   wish  ;    QUAERERE.     It.   chiedere  ;    Fr. 
querir.     Pre-s.  qu/ero,  qiueres,  quzere,  queremos,  quereis, 
quieren.     Pret.    qm'se,  quwiste,  quiso,  qm'simos,  qums- 
teis,    qm'sieron.     Fut.    querre,    &c.     Sabj.  qu?'era-as-a, 
queramos-ais,  quieran.     Imper.   qm'ere,  quiera,  quera- 
mos,  quered,  qiu'eran. 

9.  Saber,  to  know ;    SAPERE,     It.  sapere,     Fr.    savoir. 
Pres.   se,  sabes,  &c.    (Subj.  sep&,  sepas,  &c.)     Pret.  supe, 
swpiste,  supo,  swpimos,  si^isteis,  sw/>ieron-     Fut.  sabr/, 
sabras,  &c.     Imper.  sabe,  sep&,  sepamos,   sabed,  sep&n. 

10.  Ser,  to  be ;  see  28. 

11.  Taner,  to  touch  ;  TANGERE,  It.  toccare,  Fr.  toucher, 
Pret.    tafii,    taniste,   tano    tafiimos,   tanisteis,    tafieron. 

12.  Tener,  to  have  ;  see  28. 

13.  Traer,    to  draw ;    TRAHERE,    It.  trarre,    Fr.  traire. 
Pres.  traigtf,  traes,    &c.    (Sabj.  tr&iga,  tr&igas,  &c.)    Pret. 
traje,  trajiste,  trajo,  trajimos,  tra;'isteis,  tra/eron  Imper. 
trae,  tra^a,  traz^amos,  traed,  tra?^an, 

NOTE. — The  compounds  are  conjugated  in  the  same 
manner. 


VERBS.  Gl 

14.  Valer,  to  be  worth  ;  VALERE,  It.  valere,   Fr.  valoir, 
Pres.  valf/o,  vales,  &c.  (Subj.  val<7a,  val^as&c.)   Fut.  val- 
dre,   vaMras,  &c.     Imper.  vale,  val^a,  vaL/amos,  valed, 
vak/an. 

NOTE. — Equivaler    has   the    same   irregularity,    (also 
prevalrese). 

15.  Ver,  to  see ;  VIDERE,  It.  vedere,  Fr.  voir.  Pres.  veo 
ves,  ve,  &c.  (Subj.  vea,  veas,  &c. )    Imperf.  veia,  veias  &c. 
(old  form  via,   &c).     Imper.   ve,  vea,  veamos,  ved,  vean, 
Part,  visto. 

C.     Third  Conjugation. 

1.  Adquirir,  to  acquire  ;   AD  QUAERERE,  It.  acquistare, 
Fr.    acquerir.      Pres.    adquiero-res-re,    adquirimos-ris, 
adquieren,       Subj.     adqaiera-ras-ra,     adquiramos-rais, 
adquieran.     Imper.  adquiere-ra,  adquiramos-rid,  adqui- 
eran. 

2.  Asir,  to  seize  ;  APISCI,   It.  sagire,   Fr.  saisir.     Prex. 
asgro,  ases,   &c.     (Subj.    as(/a,    asr/as,    &c).     Imper.    ase, 
as^a,  as^amos,  asid,  asp'an. 

3.  Conducir,   to  conduct ;    CON-DUCERE  ;  It.  condurre  ; 
Fr.    conduire.       Pres.   condu^co,  conduces.  &c.     (Subj. 
condu^ca,    &c.)       Pret.    conduje-Jiste-j/'o,    Jimos-jiisteis, 
jeron.      Imper.    conduce,    condu2:ca,-du2:canios,-ducid,- 
duzcan. 

NOTE. — The  compounds  of  ducir  have  the  same  forms, 
and  also  lucir,  except  the  preterite  luce,  which  is  regu- 
lar. 

4.  Decir,   to  say ;  DICERE.     It.  dire,  Fr.  dire.     Pres. 
digo,  d?'ces,  dice,  decimos,  decis,  dicen.     Pret.  di/e,  d^'is- 
te,  dijo,  d?)'imos,  dz)'isteis,  d^)'eron.     Fut.  dire  diVas,  &c. 
(Subj.  diga,,  dig&s,  &c).    Imper.  di,  d^a,  digamos,  decid, 

Gerund,  diciendo.     Part,  die  ho. 


62  VERBS. 

NOTE.  —The  compounds  are  conjugated  in  the  same 
manner,  except  that  they  have  dice  instead  of  di ;  while 
bendwir  and  maldecir  have  also  the  future  and  condi- 
tional tenses  regular,  with  double  forms  in  the  past  par- 
ticiple. 

5.  Ir,  to  go ;  IRE.  It.  ire;  Fr.  irai,  &c.,  future  of  aller. 
Pres.  VOY,  VAS,  va,  VAMOS,  VAIS,  VAN.  Tmpcrf.  i/>a,  ifrae, 
ifta,  iftamos  ifrais,  iftan.  Pret.  FUI,  FUISTE,  FUK,  FUIMOS, 
FUISTEIS,  FUERON.  Subj.  VAYA,  VAYAS,  &c.  (Gerund, 
?/endo).  Imper.  VE,  VAYA,  VAYAMOS,  (or  VAMOS)  id,  VAYAN. 

G.  Oir,  to  hear ;  AUDIRE.  It.  udire  ;  Fr.  ouir.  Pres. 
oigo,  o?/es,  o?/e,  oimos,  ois,  o?/en.  Pret.  oi,  oiste, 
oyo,  oimos,  oisteis,  o?/eron.  Subj.  oi#a,  oit/as,  &c. 
Gerund,  oyendo).  Imper.  oye,  oir/a,  oi^arnos.  oid,  oigran. 

7.  Salir,  to  go  out;    SALIRE.     It.  salire   (sortire).  Fr. 
(sortir).     Pres.  sal^o,  sales,  &c.     Fat.  salrfre,  &c.    Subj. 
satya,  &c.     Imper.  sal,  salr/a,  sal^amos,  salid,  salgan. 

8.  Venir,  to  come  ;   VENIRE.      It.  venire  ;    Fr.  venir. 
Prex.  ven^o,  vi'enes,  viene,  venimos,  venis,  vz'enen.    Prei. 
vme,    viniste,   vino,    vinimos,  vinisteis,    vinieron.     Fut. 
venire,  ven^ras,  &c.     Subj.  venr/a,  ven^as,  &c.     Imper. 
ven,  vengra,  ven^amos,  venid,  venp'an.    Gerund,  vmiendo. 

35.     THE  PARTICIPLE.     (El  Participio}. 

1.  Those  forms  of  the  verbs  which  end  in  ando,  iendo, 
called  gerunds  in  Spanish  grammar,  Correspond  to  the 
present  participle  in  English,    while   those   ending   in 
ante,   ente  or  iente,  called  present  (or  active)  participles, 
correspond  to  the  English  verbal  adjectives. 

2.  The  gerund  is  always  invariable.     Ex.     Entraron 
cantando,  they  entered  singing. 

3.  The  present  (or  active)  participle  agrees  with  the 
noun  to  which  it  is  joined  as  a  verbal  adjective.     Ex. 


VERBS. 


Prueba  concluyente,  convincing  proof.     Aguas  corrientes, 
running  waters. 

4.  The  past  or  passive  participle  is  invariable  when 
joined  with    haber,   but  with   ser,   estar,  quedar,   &c.,   it 
agrees  with  the  subject.       Ex.       Hemos  comprado  cua- 
dros,  we  have  bought  pictures.     El  (ella)  es  alabado  (a), 
he   (she)   is   praised.       Estan  (or  quedan)  demostradas 
estas  verdades,  these  truths  are  (or  remain)  demonstra- 
ted. 

5.  The  past  participle  of  some  verbs  has  two  forms, 
a  passive  (regular),  and  an   absolute  (irregular)  ;    as, 
dividido,  diviso,  divided.     Of  the  latter,  frito,  preso,  pro- 
visto,  and  roto  are  used  with  haber.     The  rest  are  verbal 
adjectives. 

NOTE. — Some  passive  participles  have  also  an  active 
signification.  Ex.  leido,  read,  well  informed,  (i.  e.) 
one  who  has  read  much. 

6.  The  following  verbs  and  their  compounds  have 
only  an  irregular  past  participle  : 


abrir 

absolver 

cubrir 

decir 

disolver 

escribir 

hacer 


abierto 

absuelto 

cubierto 

dicho 

disuelto 

escrito 

hecho 


imprimir 

morir 

poner 

resolver 

soltar 

ver 

volver 


impreso 

muerto 

puesto 

resuelto 

suelto 

visto 

vuelto 


NOTE. — Inscribir  and  proscribir  have   also   the  forms 
inscripto  and  proscripto. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS, 
With  References  to  Model  of  Conjugation  in  Sec.  34,  pp.  56-63. 


Absolver,  I.  b. 

Calentar,  I,  a. 

Deferir,  I,  a. 

Abstraer,  II,  B.  13. 

Cegar,  I,  a. 

Degollar,  I.  b. 

Acertar,  I,  a. 

Cefiir,  I,  c. 

Demoler,  I,  b. 

Aoordar,  I,  'o. 

Cerner,  I,  a. 

Demostrar,  I,  b. 

Acostarse,   I,  b. 

Cerrar,  I,  a. 

Denegar,    I,   a. 

Acrecentar,  I,  a. 

Cimentar,  I,  a. 

Deno^tar  I   b 

Adestrar,  I,  a. 

Cocer,  I,  b. 

Derreiigar,  I,  a. 

Adlierir,  I,  a. 

Colar,  I,  b. 

Derretir,  I,  c. 

Adquirir,  II,  C.  1. 

Colegir,  I,  c. 

Desacertar,  I,  a. 

Adueir,  II,  C.  3. 

Collar,  I,  1). 

Desacordar,  I,  b. 

Advertir,  I,  a. 

Comedirse,  I,  c. 

Desalentar,   I,  a. 

Agorar,  I,  b. 

Comenzar,  I,  a. 

Desapretar,  I,  a. 

Alentar,  I,  a. 

Competir,  I,  c. 

Desaprobar,  I,  b. 

Almorzar,  I,  b. 

Comprobar,  I,  b. 

Desasosegar,  I,  a. 

Amolar,  I,  b. 

Concelnr,  I,  c. 

Desatender,  I,  a. 

Andar,  II,  A.  1. 

Concernir,  Sec.  33. 

Desatehtar,  I,  a. 

Apacentar,  I,  a. 

Concertar,  I,  a. 

Desavcnir,  11,  C.  8. 

Aporcar,  I,  b. 

Concordar,  I,   b. 

Descender,  I,  a. 

A  postar,  I,  b. 

Condescender,  I,  a. 

Descenir,  I,  c. 

Apretar.  I,  a. 

Condolerso,  I,  b. 

Descolgar,  I,  b. 

Aprobar,  I,  b. 

Comlucir,  II,  C.  3. 

Descollar,  I,  1). 

Arrecirse,  I.  c. 

Conlerir,  I,  a. 

Descomedirse,  I,  c. 

Arreridar,  I,  a. 

Confesar,  I,  a. 

Desconcertar,  I,  a. 

Arrepentirse,  I,  a. 

Conocer,  II,  B.  3. 

Desconsentir,  I,  a. 

Ascender,  I,  a. 

Coumover,  I,  b. 

Desconsolar,  1,  b. 

Asentar,  I,  a. 

Consequir,  i,  c. 

Desempe<irar,  I,  a. 

Asentir.  I,  a. 

Cunsentir,  I,  a. 

Desencerrar,  I,  a. 

Aserrar.  I,   a. 

Consolar,  I,  b. 

Desengrosar,  I,  b. 

Asestar,  I.  a. 

Constreifiir,  I,  c. 

Desentender,  I,  a. 

Asir,  II,  C.  2. 

Contar,  I,  b. 

Desenterrar,  I,  a. 

Asolar,  I,  b. 

Contender,  I,  a. 

Desenvolver,  I,  b. 

Asoldar,  I,  b. 

Contener,  Sec.  28. 

Deservir,  I,  c. 

Asonar,  I,  b.  1. 

Contradecir,  II,  C.  4. 

Desflocar,  I,  b. 

Atender,  I,  a. 

Contraer,  II,  B.   13. 

Desl'ogar,  I,  b. 

Atentar,  I,  a. 

Controvertir,  I,  a. 

Desliacer,  II,  B.  5. 

Aterrar,  I,  a. 

Convertir,  I,  a. 

Deslierrar,  I,  a. 

Atestar,  I,  a. 

Corregir,  I,   c. 

Deshelar.  I,  a. 

Atraer,  II,  B.  13. 

Costar,  I,  b. 

Desleir,  I,  c. 

Atraversar,  I,  a. 

Dar,  II,  A.  2. 

Desrnembrar,  I,  a. 

Aventar,  I,  a. 

Uecaer,  II,  B.  2. 

Desrnentir,  I,  a. 

Avergonzar,  I,  b. 

Decentar,  I,  a. 

Desolar,  I,  b. 

Bendecir,  II,  C.  4. 

Decir.  II,  C.  4. 

Desollar,  I,  b. 

Caber,  II,  B.  1. 

Deducir,  II,  C.  3. 

Desovar,   1,  b. 

Caer,  II,  B.  2. 

Defender,  I,  a. 

Despeclir,  I,  c. 

IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


65 


Pespedrar,  I,  a. 

Estregar,  I.  a. 

Nevar,  I,  a. 

Despernar,  I,  a. 

Esttvnir,  I,  c. 

Oir.  II,  C.  6. 

Despertar,  I,  a. 

Expedir.  I,  c. 

Oler,  I,  b. 

Desplegar,  I,  a. 

Extender,  I,  a 

Pedir,  I,  c. 

Despollar,  I,  b. 

Forzar,  I,  b. 

Pensar,  I,  a. 

Desterrar,  I,  a. 

Fregar,  I,  a. 

Perder,  I,  a. 

Destefiir,  I,  c. 

Freir,  I,  c. 

Perniquebrar,  I,  a 

Destorcer,  I,  b. 

Gemir,  I,  c. 

Perseguir,  I,  c. 

Destrocar,  I,  b. 

Gobernar,  I,  a. 

Pervertir,  I,  a. 

Desvergonzarse,  I,  b. 

Haber,  sec.  28. 

Placer,  sec.  33.  3. 

Desvolver,  I.  b. 

Hacer,  II,  B.  2. 

Plegar,  I,  a. 

Dezmar,  I,  a.  . 

Heder,  I,  a. 

Poblar,  I.  b. 

Discernir,  I,  a. 

Helar,  I,  a. 

Poder,  II,  B.  6. 

Dilerir,  I,  a. 

Henchir,  I,  c. 

Podrir,  sec.  33,  4. 

Digerir,  I,  a. 

Render,  1,  a. 

Poner.  II,  B.  7. 

Discordar,  I,  b. 

Hcifiir.  I,  c. 

Preferir,  I,  a. 

Disentir,  I,  a. 

Ilerir,  I,  a. 

Presentir,  I,  a. 

Disolver,  I,  b. 

Herrar,  I,  a. 

Probar,  I,  b. 

Divertir,  I,  a. 

Hervir,  I,  a. 

Producir,  II,  C.  3. 

Doler,  I,  b. 

llolgar,  I,  b. 

Proferir,  I,  a. 

Dorrnir,  I.  b. 

Hollar,  I,  b. 

Promover,  I,  b. 

Elegir,  I,  c. 

Imped  ir.  1,  c. 

Proseguir,  I,  c. 

Kmbestir,  I,  c. 

Incensar,  I,  a. 

Quebrar,  I,  a. 

Empedrar,  1,  a. 

Inducir,  II,  C.  3. 

Querer,  II,  B.  8. 

Empezar,  I,  a. 

Inferir,  I,   a. 

Raer,  II,  B.  13. 

Emporcar,  1,  b. 

Inferriar,  I,  a. 

Recocer,  I,  b. 

Eucender,  I,  a. 

Ingerir,  I,  a. 

Recomendar,  I,  a. 

Encensar,  I,  a. 

Inquirir,  II,  C.  1. 

Recordar,  I,  b. 

Encerrar,  I,  a. 

Introducir,  II,  C.  3. 

Recostar,  I,  b. 

Encomendar,  I,  a. 

Invernar,  I,  a. 

Reducir,  II,  C.  3. 

Encontrar,  I,  a. 

Invertir,  I,  a. 

Rei'erir,  I,  a. 

Encordar,  I,  b. 

Investir,  I,  c. 

Reforzar,  I,  b. 

Encubertar,  I,  a. 

Ir,  II,  C.  5. 

Regar,  I,  a. 

Engreirse,  I,  c. 

Jugar,  II,  A.  4. 

Regir,  I,  c. 

Engrosar,  I,  b. 

Llover,  I,  b. 

Regoldar,  I.  b. 

Erimendar,  I,  a. 

Maldecir,  If,  C.  4. 

Reir,  I,  c. 

Enrodar,  I,  b. 

Manifestar,  I,  a. 

Remendar,  I,  a. 

Ensangrentar,  I,  a. 

Mantener,  sec.  28. 

Re  m  order,  I,  b.  2. 

Entender,  I,  a. 

Medir,  I,  c. 

Rendir,  I,  c. 

Enterrar,  I,  a. 

Mentar.  1,  a. 

Renegar,  I,  a. 

Envestir,  I,  c. 

Mentir,  I,  a. 

Renovar,  I,  b. 

Envolver,  I,  b. 

Merendar,  I,  a. 

Refiir,  I,  c. 

Erguir,  sec.  33. 

Moler,  I,  b. 

Repetir,  I,  c. 

Errar,  1,  a. 

Mordcr,  I,  b 

Reprobar,  I,  b. 

Escarmentar,  I,  a. 

Morir,  I,  b. 

Requebrar,  I,  a. 

Escocer,  I,  b. 

Mostrar,  I,  b. 

Requerir,  I,  a. 

Esforzar,  I,  b. 

Mover,  I,  b. 

Rescontrar,  I,  b. 

Estar,  sec.  28. 

Negar,  I,  a. 

Resentirse,  I,  a 

VEEBS. ADVERBS. 


Resollar,  I,  b. 

ser,  sec.  28. 

Traclacir,  IT,  C.  3". 

Resolver,  I,  b. 

Servir,  I,  c. 

Traer,  II,  B.  13. 

Resonar,  I,   b. 

Serrar,  I,  a. 

Trascender,  I  a. 

Retentar,  I,  a. 

Soldar,  I,  b. 

Trascolar,  I,  b. 

Retorcer,  T,  b. 

Soler,  I,  b.  (33). 

Trascordarse,  I,  b. 

Reventar,  I,  a. 

Soltai,  I,  b. 

Trasferir,  I,  a. 

Revertir,  I,  c. 

Solver,  I,  b. 

Trasegar,  I,  a. 

Revolar,  I,  b. 

Sonar,  I,  b. 

Trasojfiar,  I,  b. 

Revolcar.  I,  b. 

Sonar,  I,  b. 

Trocar,  I,  b. 

Revolver.  I,  b. 

Sonreir,  I,  c. 

Tronar,  I,  b. 

Rodar,  I,  b. 

Sosegar,  I,  a. 

Tropezar,  I,  a. 

Roer,  II,  B.   2. 

Soterrar,  I,  a. 

Valer,  II,  B.  14. 

Rogar,  i;  b. 

Subarendar,  I,  a. 

Venir,  II,  C.  8. 

Saber,  II.  B.  9. 

Sugerir,  I,  a. 

Ver,  II,  B.   15. 

Salir,  II.  C.  7. 

Temblar,  I,  a. 

Verter.jl,  a. 

Satisfacer.  II,  B.  5. 

Tender,  1,  a. 

Vestir,  I,  c. 

Segar,  I,  a. 

Tener,  sec.  28. 

Volar,  I,  b. 

Seguir,  I,   c. 

Tefiir,  I,  c. 

Volcar,  I,  b. 

Sembrar,  I,  a. 

Ten  tar,  I,  a. 

Volver,  I,  b. 

Sentarse,  I,  a. 

Torcer,  I,  b. 

Yacer,  sec.  33,  0. 

Sentir,  I,  a. 

Tostar,  I,  b. 

Zaherir,  I,  a. 

36.     ADVERBS.       (Adverbiox). 

After  the  loss  of  the  Latiri  affixes  E  and  TER,  (since 
they  were  unaccented  syllables),  a  new  adverbial  ending 
was  formed  from  the  noun  MENS. 

This  word  had  already  been  iised  in  the  ablative  case 
with  the  signification  of  "manner,"  and  subsequently 
by  simply  joining  this  suffix  mente  to  the  feminine  form 
of  adjectives,  a  large  number  of  adverbs  were  construct- 
ed in  all  the  Komanic  languages.  Ex.  Devota — mente, 
with  a  devout  mind,  in  a  devout  manner,  devoutly.  (It. 
devotamente,  Fr.  denotement),  Seriamente,  It.  seriamente, 
Fr.  zerieusement,  seriously.,  If  the  feminine  of  the  ad- 
jective did  not  end  in  A  the  final  vowel  was  usually 
dropped  unless  preceded  by  T,  as  generalmente,  facil- 
mente,  elegantemente. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  many  simple  adverbs 
and  numerous  adverbial  expressions  (i.  e.  nouns,  adjec- 


ADVERBS. 


C7 


tives  &c.,  combined  with  prepositions  or  other  parts  of 
speech),  to  express  the  adverbial  relations  ;  as  aUo, 
ALTUM,  high,  loud  ;  (It.  alto,  Fr.  hautement).  en /rente, 
IN  FRONTEM,  in  front,  opposite  ;  (It.  in  faccia,  Fr.  en  face.) 
The  adverbs  most  frequently  used  are  classified  as 
follows  : 

].     Adverbs  of  Affirmation.     (Aftrmacion). 

Spanish.          Latin.  Italian.  French. 


Cierto  CERTUM 

De  veras         VERB 
Si  sic 


certo  certes  certainly,  truly. 

davvero          (en  verite)        in  truth,  indeed. 
si  (oui,  HOC  ILLUD)  yes. 


2.     Adverbs  of  Comparison.     (Gomparacion). 


Mas 

MAGIS 

(piu,  PLUS 

plus, 

Mejor 

MELIOREM 

meglio 

mieux 

Menos 

MINUS 

me  no 

moins 

Peor 

PKJOREM 

peggio 

pire 

Muy 

MULTUM 

molto 

(M-6.-5,  TRANS) 

more. 

better. 

less. 

worse. 

very. 


Adverbs  of  Doubt.     (Duda). 


Quiza=quien  sahe,  QUIS  SAPIT, 
Acaso  CASUM 


who  Tcnows,  perhaps. 
(forse)  (peat  etre,  par  hazard)  by  chance. 


4.     Adverbs  of  Manner.     (Modo). 


Apenas 

AB  POENA(M) 

apena 

Asi 

AEQUE  SIC 

si  (cosi) 

Bien 

BENE 

bene 

Cararaente 

CARA  MENTE, 

caramente 

Como 

QUO  MODO 

come 

Despacio 

DE  SPATIUM  ? 

(adagio) 

Mai 

MALE 

male 

Quedo 

QUIETUM 

quietamente 

Recio 

RIGIDUM 

rigidamente 

i  peine  scarcely,  hardly. 
aussi,  si  so,  thus. 

hi  en  well. 

clierement  dearly. 

comnie  as,  how. 

(douce  men  t)  slowly,  softly. 
mal  badly,  ill. 

(quiet,  adj.)  quietly. 

rigid  e  me  nt         strongly. 


5.     Adverbs  of  Negation.     (Negation). 


Jamas 
No 

Nunca 
Tauipoco 


JAM  MAGIS  giammai 

NON  no,  non 

NUNQUAM  unqua 

TANTUM  PAUCUM  (uemmeno) 


jamais  never. 

ne  no,  not. 

one,  oucques  never. 

(non  plus)  neither. 


68 


ADVERBS. 


6.     Adverbs  of  Order.     (Or den). 

Primeramente    PRIMARIA    primieramente    premierement  Urstly, 

Sucesivamente  SUCCESSIVA  successivamente  successivement  successively. 
Ultimamente      ULTIMA         ultimamente       ulterieurement  lastly. 

1.     Adverbs  of  Place.     (Lugar). 


Ahajo 

AD  BASSUM 

ahasso 

en  bas  (dessous)       below. 

Aca 

ECCE  HAC 

qui 

ea                    here,  hither. 

AM 

IBI 

ivi,  vi 

y                               there. 

Alii 

ILL  AC 

li 

li                 there,  thither. 

Alii 

ILLIC 

11 

there. 

Aqui 

ECCE  HIC 

qui 

ici                              here. 

Alrededor=al 

redor  de,    ROTULUM  (intorno) 

(alentour)             around. 

Arriba 

(  =SUPRA) 

sopra 

en  haut  (dessus)       above. 

Cerca 

CIKCA 

circa  (presso)  (pr£s.  PRESSUM)         near. 

Delante 

DE  AB  ANTE 

davante-(i) 

devant                   before. 

Detras 

DE  RETRO 

dietro 

derrtere                  behind. 

Dentro 

DE  INTER(US) 

dentro 

(dedans)           in,  within. 

Donde 

DE  UNDE 

donde 

(dont)                      ivhere. 

Fuera 

FORAS 

fuori 

(de)hors        out,  without. 

Lejos  (luejfie) 

LAXUS(=LONGE)    lungo 

loin                             far. 

(0) 

UBI 

ove 

ou                           where. 

8. 

Adverbs  of 

Quantity. 

(Cantidad). 

Basta 

(Ger.  hast) 

basta 

(assez,  AD  SATIS)   enough. 

Casi 

QUAM  SI 

quasi 

quasi        almost,  nearly. 

Cuanto  (cuan) 

QUANTUM 

quanto 

quant                        as  (to) 

Demasiado 

DE  MAGIS(NIMIUS)  (troppo) 

(trop)                 too  much. 

Muchos 

MULTUM 

molto 

moult                       much. 

Poco 

PAUCUM 

poco 

peu                            little. 

Tan  to 

TANTUM 

tan  to 

tant                    so  much. 

9.     Adverbs 

of  Time. 

(Tiempo). 

Ahora 

AD  HORAM 

adesso  (AD  IPSUM  TEMPUS)               now. 

Antes 

ANTE 

anzi 

avant  (AB)               before. 

Aun 

ADHUC 

anche  (ancora)  (encore)             still,  yet. 

Ayer 

HERI 

ieri 

hier                  yesterday. 

Cuando 

QUANDO 

quando 

quand                      when. 

Despues 

DE  POST 

dopo 

depuis            after,  since. 

Hoy 

HODIE 

oggi 

aujourd'  hui           to-day. 

Man  ana 

mane  (de) 

domani 

demain           to-morrowt. 

Mientras 

(=DUM  INTER) 

mentre 

while,  whils. 

Presto 

PRAESTO 

presto 

pret            directly,  soon. 

ADVERBS. PREPOSITIONS.  69 

Pronto  PKOMPTUM  prontamente  promptement       quicMy. 

Siempre  SEMPER  sempre           (toujours)               always. 

Tarde  TARDE  tardo               tard                             late. 

Temprano  TEMPORANEUM  (di  bnon  ora)    (de  bonne  heure)     early. 

Ya  JAM  gia.                   (de)ji                   already. 

NOTE  1.  Some  of  the  above  adverbs  may  belong  to 
two  or  more  classes. 

NOTE  2.  Some  are  used  also  as  adjectives  or  substan- 
tives. Ex.  Vendrd  martana,  he  will  come  to-morrow, 
(early).  La  manana  estdfresca,  the  morning  is  cool. 

NOTE  3.  When  several  adverbs  ending  in  mcnte  are 
used  in  the  same  sentence,  the  termination  is  only  ex- 
pressed with  the  last  for  the  sake  of  euphony.  Ex. 
Cesar  escribio  dara,  concisa  y  elegantemente,  Csesar  wrote 
clearly,  concisely  and  elegantly. 

NOTE  4.  Cuanto  and  tanto  lose  the  final  syllable  when 
immediately  followed  by  an  adverb,  adjectives  or  parti- 
ciple, except  mayor,  mejor,  menor,  peor.  Ex.  /Cuan 
dexpacio  caminan  !  how  slowly  they  walk  !  Es  tan  docil. 
he  is  so  docile.  But  tanto  mejor,  tanto  peor,  so  much 
better,  so  much  worse. 

NOTE  5.  Two  adverbs  of  negation  (or  words  express- 
ing negation)  are  sometimes  joined  to  the  same  verb 
for  emphasis.  Ex.  Nunca  jamas  lo  hare,  I  will  never  do 
it.  No  sabe  nadie,  he  knows  no  one. 

NOTE  6.  Aqui  and  acd  imply  nearness  to  the  speaker, 
ahi,  to  the  person  addressed,  alii  and  alia,  distance  from 
both.  Aqui  and  alii,  are  more  restricted  in  signification, 
than  acd  and  alia,  the  former  are  used  with  verbs  inply- 
ing  rest,  the  latter  with  those  indicating  motion.  Ex. 
Dormiremos  aqui,  we  will  sleep  here.  Estuvimos  alii,  we 
were  there.  Ven  acd,  voy  alia,  come  here,  I  am  going 
there. 

37.     PREPOSITIONS.      (Preposiciones). 

The  Latin  prepositions  are  mostly  retained  with  cer- 
tain euphonic  changes,  but  many  other  words  may  be 
compounded  with  them,  forming  a  phrase  which  may 
be  used  as  a  preposition. 


70 


PREPOSITIONS. — CONJUNCTIONS. 


Spanish. 

Latin. 

Italian. 

French, 

A 

AD 

a 

4                  at  (  of)  to,  dc. 

Ante 

ANTE(AB,  l)£) 

a-(da)vante(i) 

a-(de)vant               before. 

Con 

CUM 

con 

(avec=ApuD  HOC)    with. 

Contra 

CONTRA 

contra 

centre                 against. 

De 

DE 

di 

'de                                   of. 

Desde 

DE  EX  DE 

da  (dopo) 

d&s  (depuis)             since. 

En 

IN 

in 

en                                 in. 

Entre 

INTRA 

tra  (fra,  infra) 

e  ntre                   between. 

Hacia 

FACIEM  (  =VERSUS) 

verso 

vers                    towards. 

Hasta 

hacia  ana  ata 

=AD-TENUS 

or  Arab,  hatta. 

(FINEM)(DE  USQUE) 

lino  (sino) 

(jusqu'  4)                    until. 

Para 

PER 

per 

pour                            for. 

For 

PER 

per,  da 

par                by,  through. 

Segun 

SECUNDUM 

secondo 

selon           according  to. 

Sin 

SINE 

senza 

sans                   .  without. 

Sobre 

SUPRA  (SUPErf) 

sopra  (su) 

sur                       on,  over. 

Soto 

SUBTUS 

sotto 

sous                        under. 

Tras 

TRANS 

after,  behind. 

NOTE  1. — Many  adverbs  are  joiiieJ  with  de  (some- 
times d)  to  form  compound  prepositions,  as  antes  de, 
before  ;  debajo  de,  under  ;  encima  de,  above  ;  junto  d, 
near,  &c. 

NOTE  2. — d  is  often  used  with  a  noun  to  form  adver- 
bial expressions  denoting  manner,  place,  time  &c.  Ex. 
MepaKeare  d  cdballo,  I  will  take  a  ride  on  horse-back. 
d  la  misma  hora,  at  the  same  hour,  d  mi  modo,  in  my 
own  way. 

38.  CONJUNCTIONS.  (Conjunciones). 
The  conjunctions  are  also  both  simple  and  compound. 
They  may  be  divided  into  various  classes  as  adversative, 
(adversativas) ,  causal,  (causales),  conditional,  (condicion- 
ales),  copulative,  (copulalivas),  disjunctive,  (disyuntivas), 
final,  (finales),  &c.  Among  them  are  found  some  ad- 
verbs and  prepositions,  used  either  alone  or  in  composi- 
tion. The  most  common  forms  not  previously  given  are  : 
Spanish.  Latin.  Italian.  French. 

como 


ni 
6  (6) 


QUO  MODO 
MAGIS 
NEC 
AUT 


come 
mai,  ma 
rie 
o(od) 


comme 

n  mis 

ni 

ou 


as. 
but. 

neither,  nor. 
or. 


INTERJECTIONS FORMATION  OF  WORDS.  71 

pero,  PER  HOC  perd  but* 

pues  POST  poi  puis  then,  therefore. 

que  (QUOD)QUAM  die  que  that,  than. 

si  si  se  si  if. 

sino  si  NON  se  non  si  non  if  not,  unless. 

tambien  TANTUM  BENE    .  (anclie)  (anco)       (aussi)  also. 

y,  (e)  ET  e  (ed)  et  ana. 

NOTE  1. — e  is  used  instead  of  y  before  i,  or  hi,  when 
not  followed  by  e,  except  in  interrogations.  Ex.  Fran- 
da  e  Italia  son  paises  hermosisimos,  France  and  Italy 
are  very  beautiful  countries. 

NOTE  '2. — u  is  used  instead  of  6  when  the  following 
word  begins  with  o  or  ho.  Ex.  Me  lo  ha  dicho  uno  u 
otro,  one  or  the  other  told  me  so. 

NOTE  3. —  Pero  introduces  a  negative  clause  after  an 
affirmative,  sino,  an  affirmative  after  a  negative.  Ex. 
Somos  sus  servidores,  pero  no  sus  escfavos,  we  are  your 
servants  but  not  your  slaves.  La  buena  crianza  no  es 
obra  de  la  naturaleza  sino  elfruto  de  una  buena  education. 
politeness  is  not  the  work  of  nature  but  the  result  of  a 
good  education. 

39.     INTERJECTIONS.     (Interjecciones}. 

These  expressions  of  emotion  are  quite  numerous  and 
many  of  them  are  common  to  all  the  languages.  Some 
of  them  like  ah  I  ah  I  eh  I  oh  !  are  used  indifferently  to 
express  admiration,  anger,  contempt,  pain,  pleasure, 
surprise,  &c.  Bah!  denotes  aversion  and  contempt. 
Hola  !  hombre  /  indicate  a  call  or  summons.  Misericor- 
dia  !  0  Dios  mio  !  pardon  !  imply  grief,  supplication,  &c. 
Sus  !  gives  encouragement. 

40      FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 

1.  Compound  Words.  These  are  very  numerous  and 
are  formed  (in  many  instances)  by  the  union  of  two  or 
more  words  belonging  to  different  parts  of  speech  ; 
most  frequently  by  prefixing  to  a  primitive  various  par- 
ticles which  may  change  its  signification.  Ex.  anteojos, 


72 


FOKMATION    OF   WORDS. 


spectacles;  bienhechor,  benefactor;  qaitasol,  parasol;  abatir* 
to  overthrow,  (to  beat  down)  ;  conjurar  to  conspire,  (to 
swear  together)  ;  deshacer,  to  undo,  or  destroy  ;  in- 
moble,  immovable  ;  perfeccionar,  to  perfect. 

NOTE  1.  In  composition,  ab  has  generally  the  signifi- 
cation of  away,  or  down  ;  con  signifies  union  ;  de,  des 
often  reverses  the  signification  of  the  primitive  ;  in  is 
frequently  negative  ;  per  denotes  completeness,  or  is  in- 
tensive. 

NOTE  2.  Re  is  rarely  used  i  n  Spanish  to  denote  repe- 
tition or  reaction,  but  in  its  place  the  expressions  volver 
a  or  otra  vez  are  employed.  Ex.  Voy  a  volver  a  escribir 
esta  obra,  or  voy  a  escribir  otra  vez  esta  obra,  I  am  going 
to  re-write  this  work. 

II.  Derived  Words,  By  slight  changes  in  the  affix, 
several  thousand  words  may  be  traced  in  each  language 
to  the  parent  Latin. 


Latin. 

/Spanish. 

Italian. 

French. 

—  ATUM 

ado 

ato 

at             senate. 

ALEM 

al 

ale' 

al             general. 

ANT  EM 

ante 

ante 

ant           infant. 

-ANTI  AM 

anza 

anza 

ance        abundance. 

A  It  I  U  ML 

ario 

ario 

aire          salary. 

BILEM 

ble 

bile 

ble            noble. 

TIONEM 

cion 

zione 

tion           condition. 

TATEM 

dad  (tad) 

ta 

te  (tie)   "  generosity. 

ENTIAM 

encia 

enza 

ence          obedience. 

—  ENTEM 

ente 

ente 

ent            insolent. 

ENTUM 

(i)ento 

ento 

ent             document. 

ITIAM 

icia 

izia 

ice             justice. 

—  ITIUM 

icio 

izia 

ice             service. 

—  ICUM 

ico 

ico 

ique         j)oetic(al). 

IVUM 

ivo  (a) 

ivo  (a) 

if  (ive)   fugitive. 

OKEM 

or 

ore 

eur       ardor,  error. 

OKIAM 

oria 

oria 

oire          history. 

OSUM   (AM) 

oso  (a) 

oso  (a) 

eux  (euse)  glorious. 

PART  SECOND. 


USE  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  WOBDS, 

SYNTAX.     ( Sintax  is} . 


41.       CONSTRUCTION, 

The  natural  construction  of  a  sentence  is  the  same  in 
Spanish  as  in  English.  A  figurative  construction  is 
however  frequently  employed,  with  inversion  and  a 
change  of  form,  to  give  more  grace  or  elegance  to  the 
discourse. 

42.     USE  or  THE  ARTICLE, 

I.  Whenever  the  article  is  used  in  English  the  cor- 
responding article  is  generally  employed  in  Spanish. 
The  definite  article  is  also  used  in  Spanish,  though 
omitted  in  English,  before  all  nouns  taken  in  a  general 
sense,  or  in  their  widest  signification,  thus  including 
abstract  nouns,  names  of  arts,  vices,  virtues,  £c.  Ex. 
Los  hombres  son  mor talcs.  Men  are  mortal.  La  virtad 
es  am  able.  Virtue  is  lovely. 

NOTE  1. — The  definite  article  is  used  before  nouns  de- 
noting measure,  number,  time,  weight,  &c.,  also  those 
denoting  parts  of  the  body.  Ex.  Dos  duros  la  libra, 


74  ARTICLE. 

two  dollars  a  pound  ;  Doce  Hbras  al  afio,  twelve  pounds  3 
year  ;  Tiene  los  ojos  grander  ;  he  has  large  eyes.  (Po?*  is 
sometimes  used  without  the  article). 

NOTE  2. — The  definite  article  is  often  used  instead  of 
the  possessive  adjective  when  some  part  of  the  body  is 
indicated,  and  in  the  polite  form  of  the  second  person. 
Ex.  Se  lavo  last  manoa,  he  washed  his  hands  ;  Tengo  la 
(sa)  pi uma  dc  F,  I  have  your  pen. 

NOTE  3. — The  definite  article  sometimes  supplies  the 
place  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun.  Ex.  No  sale  lo 
(./uc  liace.  Lasjlores  de  cste  jar  din  y  las  del  conscrcatorio 
ion  hcrmosas. 

NOTE  4. — Names  of  the  days  of  the  week  take  the 
article  when  employed  to  mark  a  definite  time.  Ex. 
Llcgurd  el  marles  de  la  semana  proximo.. 

NOTE  5. — The  article  is  not  necessarily  repeated  with 
several  words,  as  in  French  and  Italian.  Ex.  Los 
arboles,  (las)  planlad  y  (las)  flares  de  este  jardin. 

II.  The  article  is  not  used,  (as  it  is,  always  in  French, 
generally  in  Italian,)  before  nouns  taken  in  a  partitive 
eense.     Ex.     Tengo  pan  ;    Quicre    V.    diner o  ?    I  have 
some  bread  ;  do  you  want  any  money? 

III.  Proper  names  of  persons  and  places,  also  names 
of  the  months,  nouns  in  apposition,  and  predicate  nomi- 
natives take  no  article,  except  when  used  in  a  particular 
sense,     Ex.     Jupiter,  hijo  de  Sitarno.     Yo  soy  Ameri- 
cano. 

NOTE  1. — Names  of  certain  distinguished  persons, 
proper  nouns  when  used  as  common,  names  of  the  sea- 
son?, names  of  countries  distant  from  Spain,  or  taken 
in  their  full  extent,  are  usually  preceded  by  the  article. 

NOTE  2. — Proper  names,  preceded  by  a  title  or  quali- 
fying adjective,  except  Santo,  employ  the  article  before 
the  adjective  (except  in  the  vocative  case).  Ex.  El 
capitan  Holando.  El  ambicioso  Napoleon. 


NOUN ADJECTIVE.  75 

NOTE  3. — The  article  is  not  used  with  Don,  Dofiz,  but 
It  always  precedes  Seftor,  Senora,  Seftorito,  Seftorita.  Ex. 
Dona  Maria.  El  SeHor  ininisiro  dc  la  guerra. 

NOTE  4. — The  article  is  omitted  before  adjectives  of 
number  or  order,  when  placed  after  the  words  to  which 
they  belong.  Ex.  Carlos  qitinto.  Capital®  decimo* 
But  Luis  el  Grande. 

NOTE  5. — After  verbs  of  motion  the  article  is  omitted 
before  casa,  house ;  palacio,  palace  ;  caza,  chase  ;  miaa, 
mass  ;  paszo,  promenade  ;  and  a  few  others  when  not 
otherwise  limited.  Ex.  Vdmos  a  casa,  let  us  go  home  ; 
Vlcne  dc  Francia,  he  comes  from  France. 

NOTE  G. — The  article  is  not  used  in  exclamations,  with 
nouns  when  ussd  adjectively  or  adverbially,  nor  with 
nouns  joined  with  a  verb  to  form  one  idea.  Ex.  Quo 
hcnnosa  Humiliation.  Vino  de  Espafla.  Con  paciencia, 
Tencr  hambre. 

43.     SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN. 

The  construction  of  the  noun  is  generally  the  same  as 
in  English. 

Exc.  1.  Nouns  denoting  possession  follow  the  words 
which  they  limit,  and  are  preceded  by  the  preposition 
de.  Ex.  El  re'oj  de  mi  Jwrmano,  my  brother's  watch. 

Exc.  2.  When  two  words  form  a  compound  noun  in 
English  the  order  is  inverted  in  Spanish,  and  the  two 
are  connected  by  the  preposition  dc  to  denote  material, 
means,  &c.,  and  para,  to  denote  the  use  or  end.  Ex. 
La  pluma  de  oro,  the  gold  pan;  La  mesa  para  cscribir, 
the  writing  table. 

44.     AGREEMENT  or  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

Adjectives  agree  in  gender  and  number  with  the 
nouns  which  they  qualify  or  limit.  When  an  adjective 
is  ussd  with  two  or  more  nouns,  it  must  be  in  the  plural 
number,  and  in  the  masculine  if  they  differ  in  gender, 


76  ADJECTIVES. 

except  that  it  may  agree  with  a  feminine  noun,  if  it  pre- 
cede it  in  the  singular  or  follow  it  in  the  plural.  Ex, 
La  casa  y  el  jar  din  son  espadosos.  Su  generova  madre  y 
padre.  Los  cffcctos  y  riquezas  preciosas. 

NOTE. — The  feminine  noun  nada  is  followed  by  an  ad- 
jective in  the  masculine.  Ex.  Nada  cs  tan  cierto  como 
la  muerte. 

45.     POSITION  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

Adjectives  and  participles  used  objectively  generally 
follow  the  noun,  but  nine/to,  poco,  todo,  and  the  cardinal 
numbers  precede  it.  Ex.  El  Irien  publico.  Ticne  mu- 
c/ias  tropas  y  pocos  cnemigos.  Dace  dias. 

NOTE. — Adjectives  are  sometimes  placed  first  for  em- 
phasis, for  euphony,  or  to  change  the  signification.  Ex. 
Un  cxcclcntc  hoinbrc.  Papeles  varies,  papers  on  various 
subjects  ;  Varios  paplees,  sundry  paper-. 

4G.     COMPLEMENT  or  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

The  complement  of  an  adjective  may  be  a  noun,  pro- 
noun or  verb,  connected  with  it  by  one  of  the  preposi- 
tions, a,  con,  dc,  en,  para,  por,  usually  corresponding  to 
the  English  construction.  Ex.  Inferior  IL  su  hcrmano. 
Igu.al  a  cla.  Pronto  a  obcdecer.  Lejos  de  Londrcs.  Lili- 
gcnte  en  sus  ncgocios.  Ilostre  por  sus  vertadcs.  El 
comer  es  ncuesario  para  conseruar  la  vida. 

NOTE  1. — Adjectives  denoting  behavior  are  usually 
followed  by  con.  Ex.  Es  ingrato  con  los  amigos. 

NOTE  2. — Numeral  adjectives  and  expressions  of  di- 
mension are  followed,  and  sometimes  preceded  by  de. 
Ex.  Dos  varas  dc  largo,  two  yards  in  length  ;  Un  pozo 
de  ochenta  pies  d-j  prof  undo,  a  well  eighty  feet  deep. 

47.     USE  OF  NUMEKAL  ADJECTIVES. 
1.     The  first  nine  ordinals   are  used  as  in  English, 


PKONOUNS. 

(except  that  the  article  is  omitted)  in 
ereigns,  and  also  of  the  chapters  and  pages  of  a  book, 
but  above  nine  the  cardinals  are  more  frequently  em- 
ployed. Ex.  Carlos  qainto.  Capitalo  cuarto.  Luis  ca- 
torce.  Pagina  catorce,  or  dccirao  cuarto. 

2.  The  day  of  the  month  is  usually  expressed  by  the 
cardinals  after  the  first.     Ex.     El  primero  de  Enero.    Es- 
tamos  a  docc  de  Janio.      Valencia,  12  de  Enero  de  1872. 

3.  To  express  the  time  of  the  day  the  cardinals  are 
used  with  the  article,   the  noun  hora  being  understood. 
Ex.  gQue  hora  es  f    What  time  is  it?    Es  la  una  y  media. 
it  is  half-past  one.     Son  las  cuatro  menos  cuarto.     It  is  a 
quarter  of  four.      Van  a  dar  las  doce.     It  is  going  to 
strike   twelve.     Acaban   dc   dar   las   ocho.     It   has  just 
struck  eight. 

NOTE  1. — "  Ago  "  is  represented  in  Spanish  by  ha  or 
hace.  Ex.  gCuanto  ha?  (how  long  ago  ?)  Hacealgun 
tiempo . 

NOTE  2. — La  tardc  represents  that  part  of  the  day 
from  noon  till  the  beginning  of  night,  (noche),  which 
lasts  till  sunrise,  (maftana).  The  latter  ordinarily  rep- 
resents the  time  from  sunrise  till  noon,  but  sometimes 
from  midnight  till  noon.  Ex.  A  las  dos  de  la  noche,  or 
de  la  maftana. 

48.     USE  OF  THE  PBONOUNS. 

I.  1.  Personal  pronouns  as  subjects.  See  Sec.  28, 
Bern.  1. 

NOTE  1. —  Ta  (te)  is  sometimes  used  in  addressing 
children,  inferiors,  or  intimate  friends  ;  vos  (os)  in  ad- 
dressing the  Deity,  and  persons  in  high  positions.  Nos 
and  vos,  as  nominatives,  arc  used  in  the  official  style  as 
the  plural  of  Majesty.  Ex.  Nos  (el  rey)  (6  el  obispo) 
mandamos. 


78  PRONOUNS. 

NOTE  2.—  Le  (la,  1es,las,)  is  sometimes  substituted  for 
V.  (when  it  cannot  be  suppressed),  to  avoid  repetition. 
Ex.  Cuando  he  visio  a  V.  esta  manana,  le  he  dicho  gue 
cl  negocio  estaba  concluido.  . 

2.  These  pronouns,  as  complements  of  a  verb,  gene- 
rally precede  it,  except  in  the  affirmative  imperative, 
the  infinitive  and  gerund,  when  they  are  affixed  form- 
ing with  it  one  word.  Ex.  Juan  me  via  ai/er.  Dame 
dinero,  give  me  some  money  ;  Ha.biendolcs  die/to. 

NOTE  1. — When  another  verb  precedes  the  infinitive, 
the  pronoun  may  be  placed  bsfore  that  verb.  Ex.  Me 
ealio  a  rccibir,  he  went  out  to  receive  me. 

NOTE  2 — The  objective  form  may  follow  the  verb 
when  the  latter  begins  the  sentence.  Ex.  L'evomc  a 
su  casa  cuando  era  nino,  he  took  me  to  his  house  when  I 
•was  a  child.  Hullase,  he  finds  himself. 

NOTE  3 — When  two  conjunctive  pronouns  are  used 
•with  the  same  verb,  the  indirect  object  always  precedes 
the  direct,  except  when  the  latter  is  a  reflexive  pronoun. 
Ex.  Iba  a  dcoirtelo.  Me  lo  ha  dicho.  Lae.go  .se  me  descu- 
brio,  he  immediately  discovered  himself  to  me. 

NOTE  4. — The  disjunctive  is  sometimes  used  with  the 
conjunctive  form  U>  avoid  ambiguity.  Ex.  Yo  le  es- 
crili  a  el  (a  ella),  I  wrote  to  him  (to  her.) 

NOTE  5 — The  conjunctive  pronoun  is  sometimes  an 
expletive.  Ex.  El  se  lo  comio  todo,  he  ate  everything. 

II.  When  used  indefinitely  the  Possessive  Pronoun 
is  preceded  by  the  neuter  article.  Ex.  Lo  mio  no  cs  tuyo, 
mine  is  not  thine. 

NOTE  1. — When  "mine"  "thine",  &c.,  are  preceded  by 
the  preposition  of,  the  preposition  and  the  article  are 
both  omitted  in  Spanish.  Ex.  Es  un  amigo  mio  (tuyo), 
he  is  a  friend  of  mine  (thine). 


PRONOUNS.  79 

NOTE  2. — Su  is  often  used,  instead  of  the  definite 
article,  with  a  noun  followed  by  de.  Ex.  Su  libro  de  V, 
(your  book).  Sa  cam  de  el,  (his  house.) 

NOTE  3. — The  pronoun  is  generally  repeated  with  two 
or  more  nouns,  differing  in  gender  or  number.  Ex.  Ha 
pcrdido  sn  padre  sit  madre  y  sus  hermanas. 

III.  The   neuter  forms  of  the  Demonstrative  Pro- 
nouns, csto,  cso,   aquello,  are  only  used  absolutely  to  re- 
present an  abstract  idea,   and  hence   are  never  joined 
with  a  noun.     Ex.     Eso  es  cierto,  that  is  certain. 

NOTE. — When  referring  to  time,  estc  denotes  time 
present,  esc  time  lately  past,  aquel  time  more  remote. 

IV.  The  Kelative  Pronoun  is  always  expressed   in 
Spanish,  though  sometimes  understood  in  English.     Ex. 
He  recibido  lioy  la  carta  qne  V.  escribio  la  semana  pasada, 
I  have  today  received  the  letter  you  wrote  last  week. 

NOTE  1. — If  the  antecedent  in  English  is  a  personal 
pronoun,  it  is  generally  omitted  in  Spanish,  (yo  and  ta 
excepted),  audits  place  supplied  by  the  definite  article. 
Ex.  Los  que  somos  amigo^  we,  who  are  friends. 

NOTE  2. — Lo  que  corresponds  to  the  English  icliat. 
Ex.  Dcbcmos  contcntarnos  con  lo  que  tencmos,  we  ought  to 
be  contented  with  what  we  have. 

NOTE  3. — Lo  que  is  also  used  in  the  sense  of  how  (lioio 
much).  Ex.  Aai  se  vc  lo  gcneroaa  que  fuc,  thus  we  see 
how  generous  she  was. 

NOTE  4. — Quien  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  the 
one,  the  other.  Ex.  Quien  quierc  jugar,  quien  tr  at  a  jar, 
the  one  wishes  to  play,  the  other  to  work.  , 

V.  The   Interrogative    Pronouns   are    always  used 
without  the  article,  and  when  preceded  by  a  preposition 
the    same   must   precede   the   reply.      Ex.     <>De  quien 
( Caya)  es  esta  lolsa  ?     De  mi  padre,  whose  purse  is  this  ? 


80  PRONOUNS. 

my  father's.    $A  cuanlos  estamos  hoy  ?    (cstamos)  a  doce, 
what  day  of  the  month  is  it  ?  the  twelfth. 

VI.     Of  the  Indefinite  Pronouns  ; 

1.  Alrjo  is  used  with  dc  before   an  adjective  and  quo 
before  an  infinitive.     Ex.     Ticnc   ahjo  dc  biteno,    he  has 
something  good.     $  Ticnc    V  algo  qac  dccir  ?  -have  you 
anything  to  say  ? 

2.  Alguno  is  used  instead  of  alguicn  before  a  prepo- 
sition.    Ex.     Alguno  de  cttos  halilo,  some  one  of  them 
spoke. 

3.  Alguno  and  ninyuno  must  be  used  instead  of  algui- 
cn  and  nadic,  when  an  indefinite  person  is  spoken  of  as 
belonging  to  a  class  or  definite  number.     Ex.  ^  Vino  a 
prcgantar  por  mi  alguno  dc  mis  amigosf  has  seme  one  of 
my  friends  asked  for  me  ?     Ninyuno  dc  mis  disciptilos  ha 
cstudiado  la  leccion,  no  one  of  my  pupils  has  studied  the 
lesson. 

4.  When  nada,  nadic  or  ninguno  follows  a  verb  the 
negative  adverb  must  precede  it.     Ex.     Nada  tcngo,  or 
no  tcngo  nada,  I  have  nothing.     No  hay  nadie  en  la  pucrta, 
there  is  nobody  at  the  door.     No  recibo  ninguno,  or  nin- 
gano  recibo,  I  receive  none. 

5.  Se  is  often  used  like  the  French  on  with  the  signi- 
fication of  one,  they,  people,  &c,  but  it  is  commonly  re- 
garded in  Spanish  as  a  sign  that  the  verb  has  a  passive 
sense.     Ex,     Sc  pitcde  ir  dc  Valencia  a  Madrid  en  quince 
horas,  one  (you,  we,  &c.,)  can  go  from  Valencia  to  Ma- 
drid in  fifteen  hours,     g  Qae  se  dice  de  nuovo  ?  what  news 
is  reported?  (or  do  they  report  ?)     Se  desacrcdita  lo  quo 
no  sc  comprende,  people  discredit  what  they  do  not  un- 
derstand.    Aqui  sc  liabla  cspaftol,  Spanish  is  spoken  here. 

10 


YEEBS.  81 

G.  Uno  nnd  o'tro  are  connected  by  y  or  ni  to  signify 
"both  or  neither.  Ex.  Uno  y  otro  son  infeliccs,  botli  are 
unhappy.  No  busca  ni  uno  ni  otro,  he  seeks  neither, 

49.     USE  or  THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

1.  Her  (see  Sec.  27.  II.  a.)  is  also  used  in  designating 
dignity,  profession,    art,   the  property,    destination   or 
dimension  of  an  object,  or  the  material  of   which  it  is 
made.     Ex.  El  «s  general,  (medico,  pintor),  he  is  a  general 
(physician,  painter).  Este  libra  cs  de  Pedro,  this  is  Peter's 
book     La  flor  es  para  dla,  the  flower  is  for  her.     Las 
medias  son  de  seda,  the  stockings  are  of  silk, 

2.  Eitar  also  indicates  the  situation  or  condition  of 
persons  or  things.     Ex.     El! a  cstaba  en  la  colic,  she  was 
in  the  street.     Estoy  baeno,  I  am  well.     El  mar  csta  a 
veinte  Icguas  de  aqut,  the  sea  is  twenty  leagues  from 
here. 

NOTE. — Some  adjectives  vary  in  signification  accord- 
ing as  they  are  used  with  scr  or  cstar.  Ex.  Es  bueno, 
he  is  good.  Estd  bucno,  he  is  well.  Era  malo,  he  was 
wicked.  Estaba  malo,  he  was  ill. 

3.  Tener  is  used  idiomatically  with  the  substantives 
hambrc,  sed,  miedo,  &c.,  instead  of  the  verb  to  be  and  tho 
corresponding  adjective  in  English,  also  in  expressions 
of  age  and  measure.     Ex.   ^Tiene  V.  hambrc?  are  you 
hungry  ?     Teniamos  sed,  we  were  thirsty.     Tcngo  treinta 
afios>  I  am  thirty  years  old.     Est&  mesa  ticne  cinco  pies 
de  largo,  this  table  is  five  feet  long. 

NOTE. — Hxber,  tener  and  debar  are  used  in  elliptical 
expressions  with  de  and  que  before  an  infinitive  to  de- 
note necessity  or  a  proximate  future  action.  Ex.  Ha- 
bia  de  venir,  he  was  to  come.  A  'qo  tenyo  qac  decirle  a  V. 
I  have  something  to  tell  you.  Habo  de  essribir,  he  had 
to  write.  Dtbe  de  ser  cnfermo,  he  musb  by  ill. 

11 


82  SYKTAX    OP   THE  VERB, 

50.     SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 

The  rules  of  agreement  are  generally  the  same  as  in 
English. 

NOTE  1. — The  subject  of  a  unipersonal  verb  is  never 
expressed.  Ex.  Llucve,  it  rains.  Fae  menestcr,  it  was 
necessary. 

NOTE  2. — The  subject  is  often  placed  after  the  verb 
for  emphasis  or  euphony,  Ex.  Ln  digo  yo,  I  say  it. 

NOTE  3, — Two  or  more  nominatives  of  different  per- 
sons take  a  verb  in  the  plural  number  and  in  the  chief 
person.  Ex.  Tns  hcrmanas  y  yo  iremos  alia  mafiana, 
thy  sisters  and  I  will  go  there  to-morrow. 

NOTE  4. — Two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  the  con- 
junction y  take  a  verb  in  the  plural  if  they  precede  it, 
otherwise  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun.  Ex. 
Ni.uica  me  ha  sido  mas  neccsario  tu  auxilio  y  tu  asistencia, 
never  have  your  aid  and  actual  presence  been  more 
necessary  to  me, 

NOTE  5. — A  collective  noun  may  be  followed  by  a  verb 
in  the  singular,  when  definite,  and  plural  when  indefi- 
nite, i .  e.,  according  as  the  attention  is  fixed  upon  the 
whole,  or  the  individuals.  Ex.  El  cjcrcito  vencio,  the 
army  (the  collective  whole)  conquered.  Una  tropa  de 
soldados  cntraron  la  ciudad,  a  troop  of  soldiers  (as  indi- 
vidual agents)  entered  the  city. 

51.     THE  OBJECT  OF  THE  VERB. 

1.  The  direct  object  (not  a  pronoun,  see  Sec.  48, 
I.  2.)  usually  follows  the  verb,  and  is  preceded  by  the 
preposition  a  if  it  represents  an  animated  being  or  the 
name  of  a  city.  But  a  is  sometimes  omitted  before  in- 
definite nouns,  and  for  euphony,  while  it  is  often  em- 
ployed with  inanimate  objects  when  personified.  Ex. 
AID  a  mi  padre.  He  vi4o  d  Barcelona.  Basco  amigos 
protector  et.  Yo  comparo  (d)  los  hcwbres  d  las  olas 
(waves)  del  mar.  Un  aHo  sigue  d  otro. 

NOTE. — After  tener,  denoting  possession,  the  object  is 
not  preceded  by  d.  Ticncs  un  hermano,  thou  hast  a 
brother. 


TTENSES.  83 

2.  Passive  verbs  are  followed  by  an  indirect  object 
connected  with  them  by  the  preposition  por,  by,  when 
they  express  physical  action  and  de  or  por  when  mental 
action  is  implied.      Ex,     La  casa  fae  derribada  por   el 
viento,  the  house  was  thrown  down  by  the  wind.     La 
virtad  cs  amada  de  (por)  los  bucnos,  virtue  is  beloved  by 
the  good. 

3.  Neuter  and  some  reflective  verbs  are  followed  by 
an  indirect  object  connected  with  them  by  dc  denoting 
the  cause,  &c.     Ex.   Tiritar  de  frio,  to  shiver  with  cold, 
Alcgrarse  de  las  nucvas,  to  rejoice  at  the  news, 

4.  The  indirect  objects  indicated  by  the  prepositions 
of,  to,   with,  from,  in,  by,  &c.,  in  English,  are  generally 
expressed  by  the  equivalent   prepositions  in    Spanish, 
though  there  are  many  exceptions  which  can  be  learned 
only  by  observation  and  familiarity  with  the  language. 
Ex.     Escaparon  dc  laprision,  they  escaped  from  prison, 
Debo  mucho  a  mi  amigo,  I  owe  much  to  my  friend,     Pide 
pcrdon  a  Dios,  ask  pardon  of  God,     Robo  cl  dinero  al 
banqaerOy  he  stole  the  money  from  the  banker. 

52,     USE  OF  THE  TENSES. 

The  tenses  are  generally  employed  as  in  English. 

1.  The  preterite  definite  is  the  historical  tense  m 
Spanish,  since  it  designates  the  time  of  an  action  as 
completely  past  or  accurately  designated.    Ex.    Nacio  en 
Madrid,  he  was  born  in  Madrid.     Dos  meses  ha  que  par- 
ticron  dc  aqui,  they  left  here  two  months  ago. 

2.  The  present  perfect  marks  a  time  undefined  or  a 
a  period,  some  portion  of  which  still  continues.   Ex.    He 
aprendido  cl  Espaflol  en  Espafta,  I  learned  the  Spanish 
language  in  Spain.     Mi  hermano  ha  venido  csta  semana, 
my  brother  came  this  week. 


84  ,  USE   OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

3.  The  preterite  perfect  marks  an  anterior  time  more 
accurately  tban  the  pluperfect.     Ex.     Partio  de  csla  da- 
dad  luego  quc  halo  rccilido  aqveUa  mievar  he  left  this  city 
as  soon  as  he  had  received  that  news. 

4.  The  future  of  the  Subjunctive,  found  only  in  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  languages,  represents  a  future 
action  contingent  in  the  future,  usually  expressed  by  the 
present  in  English.     Ex,     Caeste  lo  qme  costarc,  let  it 
cost  what  it  may  (will). 

5.  The  imperfect  has  three  forms  which  are  not  easi- 
ly distinguished  in  their  usage. 

NOTE  1. — The  form  in  se  most  closely  represents  the 
English  imperfect,  what  might,  could  or  should  be.  Ex. 
Penw  que  nunca  acaba»c,  I  thought  that  he  would  never 
finish. 

NOTE  2. — The  form  in  ria  corresponds  to  the  condi- 
tional in  French  and  Italian  and  is  generally  used  in  the 
conclusion  of  a  conditional  sentence.  Ex.  Si  taviese 
(iitciera)  dincro  iria  a  Londres,  if  I  had  money  I  would 
go  to  London. 

NOTE  3. — The  form  in  ra  may  be  nsed  for  either  of 
the  others  but  refers  to  a  time  more  remote  and  deter- 
mined. Ex.  Macho  me  gustara  (gustaria]  que  succdicse 
K,  it  would  please  1113  much  that  you  should  succ3ad. 

NOTE  4. — Se  is  used  when  the  idea  of  ability,  and  ria 
when  that  of  inclination,  is  implied. 

NOTE  5. — When  no  conditional  conjunction  is  nsed, 
and  when  ?/ in  English  has  the  sense  of  whether,  ria  is 
employed.  Ex.  Yo  iria  pcro  lengo  micdo,  I  would  go 
but  I  am  afraid.  Le  preguntti  si  su  padre  vcndria  mafi- 
ana,  I  asked  him  if  (whether)  his  father  would  come  to- 
morrow. 

53.     USE  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Tho  Subjunctive  mode  is  always  employed  in  Spanish 
when  the  idea  of  a  sentence  is  in  any  manner  doubtful 
cr  contingent,  expressing  not  what  is,  but  what  may  be. 


USE   OP   THE   INFINITIVE.  85 

1.  Hence  it  is  used  after  all  verbs  expressing  any 
degree  of  wish  or  will,  doubt  or  fear  that  a  certain  event 
might  take  place.     Ex.     Espcro  que   V.  voiga,  I  hope 
that  you  may  come.     Temo  que  no  vcnga  mi  tio. 

2.  The  subjunctive  is  also  used  after  certain  conjunc- 
tions implying  the  same  doubt  or  contingency  ;  such  as 
antes  que,   before  ;   aunquc,    although  ;    cuando,   when  ; 
paraque,  porquc.  in  order  that  ;  si  if,  and  que  when  repre- 
senting a  compound  conjunction.     Ex.     Hacealo   antes 
que  mi  padre  vienc,  do  it  before  my  father  comes.      Para 
que  lo  scpa  V.  selo  dire,  in  order  that  you  may  know  it  I 
will  tell  it  you. 

3.  The  subjunctive  is  often  used  absolutely  instead 
of  the  imperative  in  the  third  person  singular,   and  in 
negative  orders  in  the  second  person.     Ex.     Nitnca  lo 
digas,  never  say  it. 

54.     USE  or  THE  INFINITIVE. 

1.  The  infinitive  either  with  or  without  an  article 
often  has  the  value  of  a  substantive,  and  still  governs 
any  complement   (except  the  genitive  rarely)  like  the 
verb.     Decir  y  haccr  son  dos  cosas,  saying  and  doing  are 
two  things.     El  comer,  el  bebcr  y  el  dormir  son  ccsas  ne- 
cezarias  para   conservar  la  vida,  eating,   drinking   and 
sleeping  are  necessary  to  preserve  life. 

2.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  connected  with  a  pre- 
ceding verb  by  que,  or  a  preposition.     De  or  a  must  be 
used  after  a  verb  of  motion.     Ex.  Es  tiempo  de  irse,  it  is 
time  to  go  away.     Voy  a  ve.rla,  I  am  going  to  see  her. 
Vengo  de  hacerlo,  I  have  just  done  it.     A  cuyo  favor  se 
acaba  dc  dedarar  la  forttma,  in  whose  favor  fortune  has 
just  declared  herself.     (See  Sec.  49,  3.  Note.) 

3.  The  infinitive  is  often  used  instead  of  the  present 
participle.     Ex.     Al  pasar  por  cl  pucnte  he  encontrado  a 


86  GERUND — PARTICIPLE ADVERB. 

ta  hermano,  in  passing  by  the  bridge  I  met  your  brother. 
El  se  resistia  con  decir,  &c.,  he  refused,  saying,  &c. 

55.     USE  or  THE  GERUND. 

The  gerund  has  taken  the  place  of  the  present  parti- 
ciple, which  is  no  longer  used  in  Spanish,  all  forms  in 
ante  or  iente  being  now  considered  verbal  adjectives  or 
nouns,  though  anciently  used  as  they  now  are  in  French 
and  Italian.  (See  Sec.  35,  1,  2). 

NOTE  1. — It  is  often  joined  to  a  verb  to  denote  con- 
tinued action,  as  in  English.  Ex.  Estoy  leijcndo  su 
carlo,  de  V.  I  am  reading  your  letter. 

NOTE  2. — Preceded  by  the  preposition  en  it, denotes 
an  action  just  completed.  Ex.  En  dicicndo  csto  se  fue, 
as  soon  as  he  said  this  he  went  away. 

56.     USE  OF  THE  PAST  PARTICIPLE. 

1.  With  haber,  scr,  &c.     (See  Sec.  35,  4). 

NOTE. — When  tener  is  used  in  place  of  haber  the  par- 
ticiple is  employed  as  a  verbal  adjective,  and  agrees 
with  the  direct  object  of  the  verb  if  one  is  expressed, 
otherwise  it  is  invariable.  Ex.  Tengo  Icidos  esos  hbros, 
I  have  read  those  books.  Les  tengo  escrito  largamente 
sobre  esla  materia,  I  have  written  to  them  fully  about  this 
matter,  (i.  e.,  lo  qae  era  mr.ncster). 

2.  The  past  participle  is  often  used  absolutely,  like 
the  ablative  absolute  in  Latin,  instead  of  an  adverbial 
clause,  and  then  it  agrees  with  the  noun  which  it  quali- 
fies.    Ex.     Sosegados  los  animos  se  restablccio  la  confianza, 
the  minds  being  calmed  confidence  was  restored.    Apren- 
dida  la  gramatica  se  sabe  el  mecanismo  de  una  lengua,  hav- 
ing learned  the  grammar  one  knows  the  mechanism  of 
a  language. 

57.     USE  OF  THE  ADVERB. 

1.  The  adverb  of  negation  is  not  used  with  the  verb, 
as  it  is  in  French,  when  the  sentence  commences  with  a 


PREPOSITIONS.  87 

negative  word,  but  a  second  negative  may  be  used  when 
the  first  is  no.  Ex.  Nada  se  dice  (rien  ne  se  dit),  noth- 
ing is  said.  No  hai  ninguno,  there  is  none. 

2.  No  negative  word  is  used  after  a  comparative,  nor 
after  otro,  or  a  menos  quc,  as  in  the  corresponding  ex- 
pressions in  French.  Ex.  Es  mas  sabio  que  se  cree,  he 
is  more  learned  than  one  thinks.  Eres  otro  de  lo  que  eras 
el  aflo  pasado,  thou  art  other  than  thou  wast  last  year. 

NOTE  1. — The  adverbs  si  and  no  are  sometimes 
strengthened  by  que.  Ex.  No  digo  ni  que  si  ni  quc  no, 
I  say  neither  yes  nor  no. 

NOTE  2. — The  adverb  is  regularly  placed  after  the 
verb,  (and  the  participle  in  the  compound  tenses),  ex- 
cept no,  which  usually  precedes.  Ex.  Mi  amigo  no  ha 
llagado  todavta,  my  friend  has  not  yet  arrived. 

NOTE  3. — No  placed  before  a  verb  followed  by  quc  or 
si-no  gives  the  signification  of  "only"  or  "but."  Ex. 
No  tcngo  que  uno,  I  have  only  one.  No  viajo  sino  rara 
vcz,  I  travel  but  rarely. 

58.       USE   OF    CERTAIN    PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  DC  is  used  (a)  to  mark  a  particular  distinction; 
Ex.     El  hombre  de  la  capa  verde,  the  man  with  a  green 
coat  ;    (b)  instead  of  a  before  an  infinitive  depending 
on  an  adjective  ;    Ex.    Es  bucno  de  comer,  it  is  good  to 
eat ;  (c)  before  a  clause  introduced  by  que,  (some  noun 
like  hccho  being  understood)  ;   Ex.    Logro  el  consuelo  de 
quc  ellos  faesen  los  agresores,  he  enjoyed  the  consolation 
of  (the  fact)  that  they  were  the  agressors. 

2.  En  implies  motion  into,  a  towards,  and  both  are 
used  in  many  adverbial  expressions  denoting  manner, 
place,  time,  &c.     Ex.      Cuyo  en  el  agua,  he  fell  into  the 
water.     Voy  a  la  posta,  d  pie,  d  las  dicz,  dc  dia  en  dia,  I 
go  to  the  P.  O.  on  foot,  at  ten  o'clock,  from  day  to  day. 

3.  Para  denotes  (a)  the  exterior  purpose,  the  end, 
object,   limit,  &c.  ;  (b)  and  joined  with  con  it  signifies 


88  .   «  x    /CONJUNCTIONS. 


.        . 
."  fi^pf  esses   ti   comparison  with  a  preceding 

noun.  Ex.  La  carte  es  para  F.,  the  letter  is  for  you. 
Parlo  para  Madrid,  I  start  for  Madrid.  82  porldba  bien 
para  con  todoi,  he  behaved  well  towards  all.  No  hay 
ninguno  cosa  imposible  para  con  Dios,  with  God  nothing 
is  impossible. 

4.  For  is  often  used  instead  of  para  with  the  signifi- 
cation. for.  Though  sometimes  expressing  purpose,  it 
more  frequently  denotes  the  inward  motive,  and  is  used 
in  expressions  denoting  in  favor  of,  in  place  of,  in  ex- 
change for,  &c.  Ex.  Hablar  por  alguno,  to  speak  for 
some  one.  Asisto  por  mi  compaTlcro,  I  am  present  for 
my  friend.  Doy  la  capa  por  el  sombrero,  I  give  the  cloak 
for  the  hat. 

NOTE.  —  In  indicating  the  result  of  an  action  para  im- 
plies expectation  of  success,  por  uncertainty.  Ex.  Tra- 
bajo  para  ganar  la  vida,  I  work  in  order  to  gain  a  living. 
Ando  macho  por  ver  si  pucdo  dormir.  I  walk  much  to 
see  if  I  can  sleep. 

Rem.  The  preposition  is  generally  placed  before  its 
object  and  is  not  necessarily  repeated  as  in  French  and 
Italian.  Ex.  En  este  mnndo  dc  miscrias  y  qflicciones 
cl  Eoangclio  da  gozo  y  esperanza,  in  this  world  of  sorrow 
and  trouble  the  gospel  brings  joy  and  hope. 

59.     USE  or  THE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

For  the  use  of  e,  u,  pero,  sino,  (see  Sec.  38,  N.  1  —  3). 

1.  Mas   is  used  like  pero,   and  both  may  be  used 
after  a  negative  when  the  verb  is  repeated.     When  the 
sentence  is  affirmative  and  but  is  equivalent  to  except  it 
may  ba  rendered   in    Spanish   by  minos.     Ex.     Todos 

fueron  alia  ininos  Carlos  y  su   hermana,  they  all  went 
there  but  Charles  and  his  sister. 

2.  Quc  is  sometimes  used  to  represent  other  con- 
junctions but  not  to  avoid  their  repetition  as  in  French, 
Ex.      Quequicra,  que  no  quiera,  whether  he  will  or  not. 


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